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Volumn 19, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 519-542

Not a soldier, not a slacker: Conscientious objectors and male citizenship in the United States during the Second World War

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CITIZENSHIP; GENDER ROLE; MALE; WAR;

EID: 35348893775     PISSN: 09535233     EISSN: 14680424     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0424.2007.00498.x     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (16)

References (133)
  • 1
    • 35348846617 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Thomas Painter, diary entry for 25 September 1940, folder 24, box 35, series IV D.2, Thomas Painter Collection, Kinsey Institute, Indiana University at Bloomington; reproduced by permission of the Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction, Inc. In 1943, Painter began corresponding with Alfred Kinsey, and his papers primarily document their collaboration in the post-war period. For more on Painter, see Henry L. Minton, Departing from Deviance: A History of Homosexual Rights and Emancipatory Science in America Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002, pp. 122-58. In 1940, his homosexuality would not yet have been treated uniformly as a disqualifying mental defect; as Allan Bérubé has shown, this policy only became part of the instructions for psychiatric screening in the first half of 1941
    • Thomas Painter, diary entry for 25 September 1940, folder 24, box 35, series IV D.2., Thomas Painter Collection, Kinsey Institute, Indiana University at Bloomington; reproduced by permission of the Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction, Inc. In 1943, Painter began corresponding with Alfred Kinsey, and his papers primarily document their collaboration in the post-war period. For more on Painter, see Henry L. Minton, Departing from Deviance: A History of Homosexual Rights and Emancipatory Science in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), pp. 122-58. In 1940, his homosexuality would not yet have been treated uniformly as a disqualifying mental defect; as Allan Bérubé has shown, this policy only became part of the instructions for psychiatric screening in the first half of 1941.
  • 3
    • 0035175589 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Gender, Citizenship and Subjectivity: Some Historical and Theoretical Considerations
    • See
    • See Kathleen Canning and Sonya O. Rose, 'Gender, Citizenship and Subjectivity: Some Historical and Theoretical Considerations', Gender & History 13 (2001), pp. 427-43
    • (2001) Gender & History , vol.13 , pp. 427-443
    • Canning, K.1    Rose, S.O.2
  • 4
    • 0009143609 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • New York: Routledge
    • Keith Faulks, Citizenship (New York: Routledge, 2000).
    • (2000) Citizenship
    • Faulks, K.1
  • 6
    • 35348829875 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • '16,000,000 to Enroll Today in First Peacetime Draft; 1,107,000 to Register Here', New York Times, 16 October 1940. See George Q. Flynn, The Draft, 1940-1973 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993).
    • '16,000,000 to Enroll Today in First Peacetime Draft; 1,107,000 to Register Here', New York Times, 16 October 1940. See George Q. Flynn, The Draft, 1940-1973 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993).
  • 7
    • 35348847227 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ned Rorem, telephone interview with the author, 19 July 2000. All interview transcripts are in the author's possession
    • Ned Rorem, telephone interview with the author, 19 July 2000. All interview transcripts are in the author's possession.
  • 8
    • 35348902634 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See John Whiteclay Chambers II, To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America (New York: Free Press, 1987). As Michael Geyer notes, 'the same language of obligation - and it is a liberal language - which makes men into citizens and, hence, into warriors, makes nonwarriors or unwilling fighters into - well, it makes them not really men': Michael Geyer, 'War and the Context of General History in an Age of Total War: Comment on Peter Paret, Justifying the Obligation of Military Service
    • See John Whiteclay Chambers II, To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America (New York: Free Press, 1987). As Michael Geyer notes, 'the same language of obligation - and it is a liberal language - which makes men into citizens and, hence, into warriors, makes nonwarriors or unwilling fighters into - well, it makes them not really men': Michael Geyer, 'War and the Context of General History in an Age of Total War: Comment on Peter Paret, "Justifying the Obligation of Military Service"
  • 9
    • 35348926085 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and Michael Howard, World War One: The Crisis in European History', Journal of Military History 57.5 (1993), pp. 145-63, here pp. 154-5.
    • and Michael Howard, "World War One: The Crisis in European History"', Journal of Military History 57.5 (1993), pp. 145-63, here pp. 154-5.
  • 12
    • 35348869892 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The phrase 'the best of all possible wars' is from Lawrence S. Wittner, Rebels against War: The American Peace Movement, 1933-1983 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984), p. 97.
    • The phrase 'the best of all possible wars' is from Lawrence S. Wittner, Rebels against War: The American Peace Movement, 1933-1983 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984), p. 97.
  • 14
    • 35348886622 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • No Constitutional Right to Be Ladies, pp. 221-52; Margot Canaday, 'Building a Straight State: Sexuality and Social Citizenship under the 1944 G.I. Bill
    • Kerber, No Constitutional Right to Be Ladies, pp. 221-52; Margot Canaday, 'Building a Straight State: Sexuality and Social Citizenship under the 1944 G.I. Bill', Journal of American History 90 (2003), pp. 935-57.
    • (2003) Journal of American History , vol.90 , pp. 935-957
    • Kerber1
  • 15
    • 35348887860 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Frances H. Early, 'New Historical Perspectives on Gendered Peace Studies', Women's Studies Quarterly 23.3-4 (1995), pp. 22-31, here p. 27
    • Frances H. Early, 'New Historical Perspectives on Gendered Peace Studies', Women's Studies Quarterly 23.3-4 (1995), pp. 22-31, here p. 27
  • 18
    • 35348887857 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Heroes or Yellow-Bellies? Masculinity and the Conscientious Objector
    • see also
    • see also Marlene Epp, 'Heroes or Yellow-Bellies? Masculinity and the Conscientious Objector', Journal of Mennonite Studies 17 (1999), pp. 107-17
    • (1999) Journal of Mennonite Studies , vol.17 , pp. 107-117
    • Epp, M.1
  • 19
    • 35348815636 scopus 로고
    • Alternative Service and Alternative Gender Roles: Conscientious Objectors in B. C. DuringWorldWar II
    • and Marlene Epp, 'Alternative Service and Alternative Gender Roles: Conscientious Objectors in B. C. DuringWorldWar II', B. C. Studies 105-106 (1995), pp. 139-58.
    • (1995) B. C. Studies , vol.105-106 , pp. 139-158
    • Epp, M.1
  • 22
    • 35348878629 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • James Tracy, Direct Action: Radical Pacifism from the Union Eight to the Chicago Seven (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), pp. 13-16; Goossen, Women Against the Good War, p. 2.
    • James Tracy, Direct Action: Radical Pacifism from the Union Eight to the Chicago Seven (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), pp. 13-16; Goossen, Women Against the Good War, p. 2.
  • 23
    • 35348882761 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Congress Looks at the Conscientious Objector (Washington, DC: National Service Board for Religious Objectors, 1944), p. 61. Indeed, in 1943, the Office of War Information researched and prepared a report on conscientious objection, but apparently never released it 'for fear of increasing the problem'; Colonel John Langston, memo to Colonel Dunkle, 20 November 1943, attached to draft 'Outline on Conscientious Objectors', in Class IV-Conscientious Objectors (General) 2 folder, box 42, Conscientious Objectors General File, Records of the Selective Service System, RG 147, United States National Archives, College Park, Maryland (COGF).
    • Congress Looks at the Conscientious Objector (Washington, DC: National Service Board for Religious Objectors, 1944), p. 61. Indeed, in 1943, the Office of War Information researched and prepared a report on conscientious objection, but apparently never released it 'for fear of increasing the problem'; Colonel John Langston, memo to Colonel Dunkle, 20 November 1943, attached to draft 'Outline on Conscientious Objectors', in Class IV-Conscientious Objectors (General) vol. 2 folder, box 42, Conscientious Objectors General File, Records of the Selective Service System, RG 147, United States National Archives, College Park, Maryland (COGF).
  • 24
    • 35348904512 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Lew Ayres, Movies and the War', Douglas Dispatch (Arizona), 26 May 1942 (carried from the Tucson Star), Lew Ayres clippings file, box 65, Records of the Center on Conscience and War (CCW Records), Swarthmore College Peace Collection (SCPC), Swarthmore, Pennsylvania. This and all other periodical clippings cited, except from the New York Times, the Reporter and where otherwise noted, are drawn from the chronologically ordered clippings files in boxes 58, 59 and 65, CCW Records.
    • 'Lew Ayres, Movies and the War', Douglas Dispatch (Arizona), 26 May 1942 (carried from the Tucson Star), Lew Ayres clippings file, box 65, Records of the Center on Conscience and War (CCW Records), Swarthmore College Peace Collection (SCPC), Swarthmore, Pennsylvania. This and all other periodical clippings cited, except from the New York Times, the Reporter and where otherwise noted, are drawn from the chronologically ordered clippings files in boxes 58, 59 and 65, CCW Records.
  • 25
    • 35348886186 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • An Army private wrote to Time that Ayres's stand was 'indicative of what the American People wrote into their Bill of Rights and what we fight our wars about, Jennifer Frost, Conscientious Objection and Popular Culture: The Case of LewAyres, in Peter Brock and Thomas P. Socknat (eds, Challenge toMars: Essays on Pacifism from 1918 to 1945 Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999, pp. 360-69, here p. 364
    • An Army private wrote to Time that Ayres's stand was 'indicative of what the American People wrote into their Bill of Rights and what we fight our wars about'. Jennifer Frost, 'Conscientious Objection and Popular Culture: The Case of LewAyres', in Peter Brock and Thomas P. Socknat (eds), Challenge toMars: Essays on Pacifism from 1918 to 1945 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999), pp. 360-69, here p. 364.
  • 26
    • 35348849149 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Temperate Heroes: Concepts of Masculinity in SecondWorldWar Britain
    • See also, Stefan Dudink, Karen Hagemann and Josh Tosh eds, Manchester: Manchester University Press
    • See also Sonya O. Rose, 'Temperate Heroes: Concepts of Masculinity in SecondWorldWar Britain', in Stefan Dudink, Karen Hagemann and Josh Tosh (eds), Masculinities in Politics and War: Gendering Modern History (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004), pp. 177-95.
    • (2004) Masculinities in Politics and War: Gendering Modern History , pp. 177-195
    • Rose, S.O.1
  • 27
    • 35348831795 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Two Brothers - One a Soldier, One a Conscientious Objector', letter to Redbook, n. d. [but in September 1942 folder].
    • 'Two Brothers - One a Soldier, One a Conscientious Objector', letter to Redbook, n. d. [but in September 1942 folder].
  • 28
    • 35348853835 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Goossen, Women Against the Good War, p. 130. When the US Supreme Court ruled in 1928 that the Hungarian Jewish pacifist and suffragist Rosika Schwimmer could not be naturalised if she refused to state her willingness in her immigration papers to take up arms on the nation's behalf, Oliver Wendell Holmes observed that, as a woman in her fifties, she 'would not be allowed to bear arms if she wanted to, United States v. Schwimmer, 279 U.S. 644, 653-54 1929, Holmes, J, dissenting, quoted by Kerber, No Constitutional Right to Be Ladies p. 246. Marlene Epp, studying masculinity among Canadian Mennonite religious objectors in alternative service camps, argues that 'the media and COs themselves used descriptive language and metaphors which likened Alternative Service to the military, Heroes or Yellow-Bellies, p. 1
    • Goossen, Women Against the Good War, p. 130. When the US Supreme Court ruled in 1928 that the Hungarian Jewish pacifist and suffragist Rosika Schwimmer could not be naturalised if she refused to state her willingness in her immigration papers to take up arms on the nation's behalf, Oliver Wendell Holmes observed that, as a woman in her fifties, she 'would not be allowed to bear arms if she wanted to'. United States v. Schwimmer, 279 U.S. 644, 653-54 (1929) (Holmes, J., dissenting), quoted by Kerber, No Constitutional Right to Be Ladies p. 246. Marlene Epp, studying masculinity among Canadian Mennonite religious objectors in alternative service camps, argues that 'the media and COs themselves used descriptive language and metaphors which likened Alternative Service to the military' ('Heroes or Yellow-Bellies', p. 1).
  • 29
    • 35348913228 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Thomas Painter, diary entry for 25 September 1940.
    • Thomas Painter, diary entry for 25 September 1940.
  • 30
    • 35348905094 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jean Ledwith King to John Culver King, 20 June 1945, in John Culver King Papers, Michigan Historical Collections, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan (quoted by permission of Jean L. King), emphasis in the original.
    • Jean Ledwith King to John Culver King, 20 June 1945, in John Culver King Papers, Michigan Historical Collections, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan (quoted by permission of Jean L. King), emphasis in the original.
  • 31
    • 35348840972 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Suggestions for the President's Radio Talk on Selective Service', attached to letter from Ward H. Maris to 'Mr. Hassett', 27 September 1940, Selective Service Legislation folder, box 1, Official File 1413, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, New York (hereafter OF 1413). On the role of sincerity in twentieth-century jurisprudence concerning the free exercise of religion, see Kenneth Marin, 'Note, Employment Division v. Smith: The Supreme Court Alters the State of Free Exercise Doctrine', American University Law Review 40 (1991), pp. 1431-76, here pp. 1431, 1438 n. 40.
    • 'Suggestions for the President's Radio Talk on Selective Service', attached to letter from Ward H. Maris to 'Mr. Hassett', 27 September 1940, Selective Service Legislation folder, box 1, Official File 1413, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, New York (hereafter OF 1413). On the role of sincerity in twentieth-century jurisprudence concerning the free exercise of religion, see Kenneth Marin, 'Note, Employment Division v. Smith: The Supreme Court Alters the State of Free Exercise Doctrine', American University Law Review 40 (1991), pp. 1431-76, here pp. 1431, 1438 n. 40.
  • 32
    • 35348928202 scopus 로고
    • Conscientious Objectors
    • Connecticut, 19 December
    • 'Conscientious Objectors', New London Day (Connecticut), 19 December 1942.
    • (1942) New London Day
  • 33
    • 35348888475 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Clarence Dykstra to Helen E. Rhoads, 10 December 1940, Class IV-E: Conscientious Objectors (Pennsylvania): (Selective Service System - General File Room) folder, box 1, COGF.
    • Clarence Dykstra to Helen E. Rhoads, 10 December 1940, Class IV-E: Conscientious Objectors (Pennsylvania): (Selective Service System - General File Room) folder, box 1, COGF.
  • 35
    • 35348847223 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Major A. J. Lewis to Major Edward S. Shattuck, 3 February 1942, Class IV-E: Conscientious Objectors (General) 1 folder, box 17, COGF.
    • Major A. J. Lewis to Major Edward S. Shattuck, 3 February 1942, Class IV-E: Conscientious Objectors (General) vol. 1 folder, box 17, COGF.
  • 36
    • 35348861425 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • James Madison's proposed Bill of Rights, as originally introduced in the House of Representatives, would have coupled the people's right to keep and bear arms with the right of religious dissenters not to be 'compelled to render military service in person'. Quakers and other religious pacifists were exempted from the Civil War draft. Sibley and Jacob, Conscription of Conscience, p. v
    • James Madison's proposed Bill of Rights, as originally introduced in the House of Representatives, would have coupled the people's right to keep and bear arms with the right of religious dissenters not to be 'compelled to render military service in person'. Quakers and other religious pacifists were exempted from the Civil War draft. Sibley and Jacob, Conscription of Conscience, p. v
  • 37
    • 35348866862 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • John Whiteclay Chambers II, 'Conscientious Objectors and the American State from Colonial Times to the Present', in Charles C. Moskos and John Whiteclay Chambers II (eds), The New Conscientious Objection: From Sacred to Secular Resistance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 23-46, here p. 29.
    • John Whiteclay Chambers II, 'Conscientious Objectors and the American State from Colonial Times to the Present', in Charles C. Moskos and John Whiteclay Chambers II (eds), The New Conscientious Objection: From Sacred to Secular Resistance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 23-46, here p. 29.
  • 39
    • 35348881002 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Objections without a religious basis were recognised following the Supreme Court's 1965 ruling in Seeley vs. United States. See Peter Irons, The Courage of Their Convictions (New York: Free Press, 1988), p. 163.
    • Objections without a religious basis were recognised following the Supreme Court's 1965 ruling in Seeley vs. United States. See Peter Irons, The Courage of Their Convictions (New York: Free Press, 1988), p. 163.
  • 41
    • 35348820659 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Samuel Rosenman (comp.), Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 9 (New York: Macmillan, 1941), p. 473.
    • Samuel Rosenman (comp.), Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, vol. 9 (New York: Macmillan, 1941), p. 473.
  • 43
    • 0037771508 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Scott H. Bennett, 'Free American Political Prisoners : Pacifist Activism and Civil Liberties, 1945-48', Journal of Peace Research 40 (2003), pp. 413-33, here p. 415.
    • Scott H. Bennett, '"Free American Political Prisoners" : Pacifist Activism and Civil Liberties, 1945-48', Journal of Peace Research 40 (2003), pp. 413-33, here p. 415.
  • 44
    • 35348926084 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Charles C. Moskos and John Whiteclay Chambers II, 'Introduction: The Secularization of Conscience', in The New Conscientious Objection, pp. 3-21; see also Wittner, Rebels against War, p. 14.
    • Charles C. Moskos and John Whiteclay Chambers II, 'Introduction: The Secularization of Conscience', in The New Conscientious Objection, pp. 3-21; see also Wittner, Rebels against War, p. 14.
  • 46
    • 35348924955 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Matthew F. McGuire to J. Edgar Hoover, 2 January 1941, 345. Class IV-E: Conscientious Objectors (General) folder, box 2, COGF. See also Attorney General Robert H. Jackson to Franklin D. Roosevelt, 5 November 1940, box 1, OF 1413.
    • Matthew F. McGuire to J. Edgar Hoover, 2 January 1941, 345. Class IV-E: Conscientious Objectors (General) folder, box 2, COGF. See also Attorney General Robert H. Jackson to Franklin D. Roosevelt, 5 November 1940, box 1, OF 1413.
  • 47
    • 35348892730 scopus 로고
    • The Army and You
    • pamphlet, April-December folder, box 1, OF 1413
    • 'The Army and You', pamphlet, April-December 1941 folder, box 1, OF 1413.
    • (1941)
  • 48
    • 35348837315 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Peter Shaw, pseud, telephone interview with the author, 5 July 2000. The 4-E classification designated those recognised as objectors to both combatant and non-combatant service, but available for alternative service 'of national importance
    • 'Peter Shaw' (pseud.), telephone interview with the author, 5 July 2000. The 4-E classification designated those recognised as objectors to both combatant and non-combatant service, but available for alternative service 'of national importance'.
  • 50
    • 35348916047 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sam Goldberg, pseud, telephone interview with the author, 19 July 2000
    • 'Sam Goldberg' (pseud.), telephone interview with the author, 19 July 2000.
  • 51
    • 35348859632 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bayard Rustin to Local Board No. 63, 16 November 1943, reel 1, Bayard Rustin Papers, microfilm edn (University Publications of America).
    • Bayard Rustin to Local Board No. 63, 16 November 1943, reel 1, Bayard Rustin Papers, microfilm edn (University Publications of America).
  • 52
    • 35348835500 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Stanfield further suggests that historians, in emphasising the role of military service as a means for minority groups to stake claims to full (male) citizenship, have tended to marginalise parallel African American traditions of refusing to take up arms in defence of a racist society. John H. Stanfield II, 'The Dilemma of Conscientious Objection for Afro-Americans', in Moskos and Chambers (eds), New Conscientious Objection, pp. 47-56.
    • Stanfield further suggests that historians, in emphasising the role of military service as a means for minority groups to stake claims to full (male) citizenship, have tended to marginalise parallel African American traditions of refusing to take up arms in defence of a racist society. John H. Stanfield II, 'The Dilemma of Conscientious Objection for Afro-Americans', in Moskos and Chambers (eds), New Conscientious Objection, pp. 47-56.
  • 53
    • 35348847225 scopus 로고
    • Draft Dodger, Spurning Court's Patriotic Pleas, Sent to Prison
    • New Jersey, 20 May
    • 'Draft Dodger, Spurning Court's Patriotic Pleas, Sent to Prison', Trenton Times (New Jersey), 20 May 1942.
    • (1942) Trenton Times
  • 55
    • 34247961966 scopus 로고
    • Blacks and the Draft: A History of Institutional Racism
    • Paul T. Murray, 'Blacks and the Draft: A History of Institutional Racism', Journal of Black Studies 2 (1971), pp. 57-76.
    • (1971) Journal of Black Studies , vol.2 , pp. 57-76
    • Murray, P.T.1
  • 56
    • 0037914996 scopus 로고
    • The Conservative Aims of Militant Rhetoric: Black Protest duringWorldWar II
    • Lee Finkle, 'The Conservative Aims of Militant Rhetoric: Black Protest duringWorldWar II', Journal of American History 60 (1973), p. 708.
    • (1973) Journal of American History , vol.60 , pp. 708
    • Finkle, L.1
  • 57
    • 35348903289 scopus 로고
    • A Conscientious Objector Finds No Friends on Coast
    • 29 August
    • 'A Conscientious Objector Finds No Friends on Coast', Chicago Defender, 29 August 1942, p. 17.
    • (1942) Chicago Defender , pp. 17
  • 58
    • 35348863787 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Charley Cherokee, 'National Grapevine', column in the Chicago Defender; quoted in 'From the Press', Reporter 4.11 (1 December 1945), p. 4.
    • Charley Cherokee, 'National Grapevine', column in the Chicago Defender; quoted in 'From the Press', Reporter 4.11 (1 December 1945), p. 4.
  • 59
    • 35348903918 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Toshiyuki Fukushima, interview with the author, 23 October 1999; Toshiyuki Fukushima to Samuel Marble, 26 June 1945, box 59, Records of the American Friends Service Committee/Civilian Public Service Personnel Records, SCPC
    • Toshiyuki Fukushima, interview with the author, 23 October 1999; Toshiyuki Fukushima to Samuel Marble, 26 June 1945, box 59, Records of the American Friends Service Committee/Civilian Public Service Personnel Records, SCPC.
  • 60
    • 35348873225 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Igal Roodenko, supplementary statement attached to Selective Service Form 47, folder on draft and CPS orders, box 1, Igal Roodenko Papers, SCPC.
    • Igal Roodenko, supplementary statement attached to Selective Service Form 47, folder on draft and CPS orders, box 1, Igal Roodenko Papers, SCPC.
  • 61
    • 35348861426 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Presidential Appeal and Advisory Docket No. 507, copy attached to James Rowe, Jr,memotoUSAttorneys and Hearing Officers, 27 February 1942, Class IV-E: Conscientious Objectors (General) 2 folder, box 17, COGF.
    • Presidential Appeal and Advisory Docket No. 507, copy attached to James Rowe, Jr,memotoUSAttorneys and Hearing Officers, 27 February 1942, Class IV-E: Conscientious Objectors (General) vol. 2 folder, box 17, COGF.
  • 62
    • 0038916520 scopus 로고
    • I Want a Girl, Just Like the Girl that Married Harry James : American Women and the Problem of Political Obligation in World War II
    • Robert B. Westbrook, '"I Want a Girl, Just Like the Girl that Married Harry James" : American Women and the Problem of Political Obligation in World War II', American Quarterly 42 (1990), pp. 587-614.
    • (1990) American Quarterly , vol.42 , pp. 587-614
    • Westbrook, R.B.1
  • 63
    • 35348925457 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sibley and Jacob, Conscription of Conscience, p. 62; Frost, 'Conscientious Objection and Popular Culture', p. 363.
    • Sibley and Jacob, Conscription of Conscience, p. 62; Frost, 'Conscientious Objection and Popular Culture', p. 363.
  • 64
    • 35348922962 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Alternative Service and Alternative Gender Roles'; Goossen
    • See
    • See Epp, 'Alternative Service and Alternative Gender Roles'; Goossen, Women Against the Good War.
    • Women Against the Good War
    • Epp1
  • 65
    • 35348855780 scopus 로고
    • A Conscientious Objector Tells Why He Fights
    • New York, 8 October
    • 'A Conscientious Objector Tells Why He Fights', Dundee Observer (New York), 8 October 1942.
    • (1942) Dundee Observer
  • 69
    • 35348868053 scopus 로고
    • One Man's Opinion
    • District of Columbia, 4 April
    • Hugh S. Johnson, 'One Man's Opinion', Washington News (District of Columbia), 4 April 1942.
    • (1942) Washington News
    • Johnson, H.S.1
  • 70
    • 35348883716 scopus 로고
    • ed, Public Opinion, 1935-1946 Princeton: Princeton University Press
    • 'Conscientious Objectors', in Hadley Cantril (ed.), Public Opinion, 1935-1946 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1951), p. 135.
    • (1951) Conscientious Objectors , pp. 135
  • 71
    • 35348823760 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Paul Comly French to Clarence E. Pickett, 3 December 1940, enclosed in Paul Comly French to Lewis B. Hershey, 11 January 1946, Class IV-E: Conscientious Objectors (General) 1 folder, box 95, COGF.
    • Paul Comly French to Clarence E. Pickett, 3 December 1940, enclosed in Paul Comly French to Lewis B. Hershey, 11 January 1946, Class IV-E: Conscientious Objectors (General) vol. 1 folder, box 95, COGF.
  • 72
    • 35348882178 scopus 로고
    • See e.g, Carpentersville, IL, 6 August
    • See e.g., Editorial, Fox Valley Mirror (Carpentersville, IL), 6 August 1943.
    • (1943) Fox Valley Mirror
    • Editorial1
  • 73
    • 35348844681 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'From the Papers', Reporter, 15 July 1944; Frederick L. Rushton, 'All Out for Peace', Worcester Telegram (Massachusetts), 27 September 1942
    • 'From the Papers', Reporter, 15 July 1944; Frederick L. Rushton, 'All Out for Peace', Worcester Telegram (Massachusetts), 27 September 1942
  • 74
    • 35348847224 scopus 로고
    • They Object to War But Not to Work
    • Memphis, TN, 9 November
    • Bob Marks, 'They Object to War But Not to Work', Commercial Appeal (Memphis, TN), 9 November 1941
    • (1941) Commercial Appeal
    • Marks, B.1
  • 76
    • 35348826208 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Quoted in Lee Bartlett, 'From Waldport to San Francisco: Art and Politics Make Peace', Literary Review 32 (1988), pp. 9-15, here p. 12.
    • Quoted in Lee Bartlett, 'From Waldport to San Francisco: Art and Politics Make Peace', Literary Review 32 (1988), pp. 9-15, here p. 12.
  • 77
    • 35348895078 scopus 로고
    • ed. Katherine Bucknell NewYork: HarperCollins, 1997
    • Christopher Isherwood, Diaries, Volume 1: 1939-1960, ed. Katherine Bucknell (NewYork: HarperCollins, 1997), pp. 274-5.
    • (1939) Diaries , vol.1 , pp. 274-275
    • Isherwood, C.1
  • 78
    • 58149440086 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Adrian E. Gory and David C. McClelland, 'Characteristics of Conscientious Objectors in World War II', Journal of Consulting Psychology 11 (1947), pp. 245-57, here p. 254.
    • Adrian E. Gory and David C. McClelland, 'Characteristics of Conscientious Objectors in World War II', Journal of Consulting Psychology 11 (1947), pp. 245-57, here p. 254.
  • 79
    • 0039019728 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • She Didn't Raise Her Boy to Be a Slacker: Motherhood, Conscription, and the Culture of the First World War
    • Susan Zeiger, 'She Didn't Raise Her Boy to Be a Slacker: Motherhood, Conscription, and the Culture of the First World War', Feminist Studies 22 (1996), pp. 7-39.
    • (1996) Feminist Studies , vol.22 , pp. 7-39
    • Zeiger, S.1
  • 80
    • 35348909066 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Charles F. Irons, 'Bucking the Current', letter to Des Moines Tribune Register, 11 October 1942.
    • Charles F. Irons, 'Bucking the Current', letter to Des Moines Tribune Register, 11 October 1942.
  • 81
    • 35348895077 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Editorial, Denison Review (Iowa), 7 December 1944, quoted in 'From the Papers', Reporter, 1 January 1945.
    • Editorial, Denison Review (Iowa), 7 December 1944, quoted in 'From the Papers', Reporter, 1 January 1945.
  • 84
    • 35348884931 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Letter to Boston Globe column, 'Victory Forum', 14 March 1942.
    • Letter to Boston Globe column, 'Victory Forum', 14 March 1942.
  • 86
    • 35348928790 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Ex-Student Sent to Prison in Draft Case', Madison (WI) Journal, 9 March 1942.
    • 'Ex-Student Sent to Prison in Draft Case', Madison (WI) Journal, 9 March 1942.
  • 87
    • 35348866245 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Frank Lloyd Wright Strikes Back in Attack by Judge', Los Angeles Times, 20 December 1942 (see also item on Wright, 'Headaches' , Time, 28 December 1942)
    • 'Frank Lloyd Wright Strikes Back in Attack by Judge', Los Angeles Times, 20 December 1942 (see also item on Wright, 'Headaches' , Time, 28 December 1942)
  • 88
    • 35348868054 scopus 로고
    • Draft Objector Lectured, Placed on 3-Year Probation
    • 9 March, COs and pacifists were often fired from teaching jobs, as the CCW clippings file shows
    • 'Draft Objector Lectured, Placed on 3-Year Probation', Chicago Daily News, 9 March 1942. COs and pacifists were often fired from teaching jobs, as the CCW clippings file shows.
    • (1942) Chicago Daily News
  • 89
    • 35348916678 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Advice for Jasper Deeter of the Hedgerow Theater', Philadelphia Record, 7 October 1942; 'Should Exempt Actors', Variety, 7 October 1942
    • 'Advice for Jasper Deeter of the Hedgerow Theater', Philadelphia Record, 7 October 1942; 'Should Exempt Actors', Variety, 7 October 1942
  • 90
    • 35348898482 scopus 로고
    • 3 at Hedgerow Deferred; Roosevelt Order Fought
    • 19 October
    • '3 at Hedgerow Deferred; Roosevelt Order Fought', Philadelphia Bulletin, 19 October 1942
    • (1942) Philadelphia Bulletin
  • 91
    • 35348821930 scopus 로고
    • War Is Far Away for 3 Deferred at Hedgerow
    • 21 October
    • John M. Cummings, 'War Is Far Away for 3 Deferred at Hedgerow', Philadelphia Inquirer, 21 October 1942.
    • (1942) Philadelphia Inquirer
    • Cummings, J.M.1
  • 92
    • 35348898992 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Harry S. Truman to Franklin D. Roosevelt, 16 April 1942, in May-June 1942 folder, box 6, OF 1413. See also Endicott Peabody to Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1 May 1942, in the same folder.
    • Harry S. Truman to Franklin D. Roosevelt, 16 April 1942, in May-June 1942 folder, box 6, OF 1413. See also Endicott Peabody to Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1 May 1942, in the same folder.
  • 94
    • 35348918900 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • James V. Bennett to Senator James M. Mead, 25 September 1946, copy in Sandstone hunger strike folder, box 2, Igal Roodenko Papers, SCPC.
    • James V. Bennett to Senator James M. Mead, 25 September 1946, copy in Sandstone hunger strike folder, box 2, Igal Roodenko Papers, SCPC.
  • 96
    • 84928847220 scopus 로고
    • The Radical Conscientious Objectors ofWorld War Two:WArtime Experience and Postwar Activism
    • Gretchen Lemke-Santangelo, 'The Radical Conscientious Objectors ofWorld War Two:WArtime Experience and Postwar Activism', Radical History Review 45 (1989), pp. 5-29
    • (1989) Radical History Review , vol.45 , pp. 5-29
    • Lemke-Santangelo, G.1
  • 97
    • 35348917650 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Tracy, Direct Action. An exception is John D'Emilio, Lost Prophet: The Life and Times of Bayard Rustin (New York: Free Press, 2003).
    • Tracy, Direct Action. An exception is John D'Emilio, Lost Prophet: The Life and Times of Bayard Rustin (New York: Free Press, 2003).
  • 98
    • 35348897922 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Open letter from the organisation Peacemakers, as quoted in Tracy, Direct Action, p. 78, emphasis added by Tracy; see also Harold S. Gray to Attorney General Francis Biddle, 27 April 1942, copy in 1941-1943 correspondence folder, box 1, Eichel Papers, SCPC. On the language of authenticity and individualism, see Doug Rossinow, The Politics of Authenticity: Liberalism, Christianity, and the New Left in America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998).
    • Open letter from the organisation Peacemakers, as quoted in Tracy, Direct Action, p. 78, emphasis added by Tracy; see also Harold S. Gray to Attorney General Francis Biddle, 27 April 1942, copy in 1941-1943 correspondence folder, box 1, Eichel Papers, SCPC. On the language of authenticity and individualism, see Doug Rossinow, The Politics of Authenticity: Liberalism, Christianity, and the New Left in America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998).
  • 99
    • 35348915456 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jack Fialkoff to Julius Eichel, 3 September 1943, in 1941-1943 correspondence folder, box 1, Eichel Papers, SCPC.
    • Jack Fialkoff to Julius Eichel, 3 September 1943, in 1941-1943 correspondence folder, box 1, Eichel Papers, SCPC.
  • 100
    • 35348833601 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ralph DiGia, 'My Resistance to World War II', pp. 38-52, here pp. 47-8, and David Dellinger, 'Why I Refused to Register in the October 1940 Draft and a Little of What It Led To', pp. 20-37, here p. 36
    • Ralph DiGia, 'My Resistance to World War II', pp. 38-52, here pp. 47-8, and David Dellinger, 'Why I Refused to Register in the October 1940 Draft and a Little of What It Led To', pp. 20-37, here p. 36
  • 101
    • 35348899584 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • both in Larry Gara and Lenna Mae Gara (eds), A Few Small Candles: War Resisters of World War II Tell Their Stories (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1999).
    • both in Larry Gara and Lenna Mae Gara (eds), A Few Small Candles: War Resisters of World War II Tell Their Stories (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1999).
  • 102
    • 35348906212 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bayard Rustin to Doris Grotewohl, 5 May 1944, reel 1, Rustin Papers.
    • Bayard Rustin to Doris Grotewohl, 5 May 1944, reel 1, Rustin Papers.
  • 105
    • 35348913833 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Stephen Cary, telephone interview with the author, 5 July 2000
    • Stephen Cary, telephone interview with the author, 5 July 2000.
  • 106
    • 35348863786 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • H. Otto Dahlke, 'Values and Group Behavior in Two Camps for Conscientious Objectors', American Journal of Sociology 51 (1945), pp. 22-33, here p. 27.
    • H. Otto Dahlke, 'Values and Group Behavior in Two Camps for Conscientious Objectors', American Journal of Sociology 51 (1945), pp. 22-33, here p. 27.
  • 107
    • 35348886624 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Letter from David M. Metcalf, 28 December 1943, in 1941-1943 correspondence folder, Eichel Papers, SCPC.
    • Letter from David M. Metcalf, 28 December 1943, in 1941-1943 correspondence folder, Eichel Papers, SCPC.
  • 109
    • 35348846616 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • JessieWallace Hughan, 'War Resistance in the Atomic Age', quoted in Bennett, Radical Pacifism, p. 138.
    • JessieWallace Hughan, 'War Resistance in the Atomic Age', quoted in Bennett, Radical Pacifism, p. 138.
  • 112
    • 0042391613 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Politics in an Age of Anxiety : ColdWar Political Culture and the Crisis in American Masculinity, 1949-1960
    • K. A. Cuordileone, '"Politics in an Age of Anxiety" : ColdWar Political Culture and the Crisis in American Masculinity, 1949-1960', Journal of American History 87 (2000), pp. 515-45.
    • (2000) Journal of American History , vol.87 , pp. 515-545
    • Cuordileone, K.A.1
  • 113
    • 0040993004 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Politics in an Age of Anxiety"'; Frank Costigliola, '"Unceasing Pressure for Penetration": Gender, Pathology, and Emotion in George Kennan's Formation of the Cold War
    • Cuordileone, '"Politics in an Age of Anxiety"'; Frank Costigliola, '"Unceasing Pressure for Penetration": Gender, Pathology, and Emotion in George Kennan's Formation of the Cold War', Journal of American History 83 (1997), pp. 1309-39
    • (1997) Journal of American History , vol.83 , pp. 1309-1339
    • Cuordileone1
  • 115
    • 84936823975 scopus 로고
    • Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals
    • Carol Cohn, 'Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals', Signs 12 (1987), pp. 687-718.
    • (1987) Signs , vol.12 , pp. 687-718
    • Cohn, C.1
  • 116
    • 35348922961 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • An important exception is David K. Johnson, The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004
    • An important exception is David K. Johnson, The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004).
  • 118
    • 0003673472 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Among manyworks onwomen in the post-war period, see, revised edn; New York: Basic Books
    • Among manyworks onwomen in the post-war period, see Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (revised edn; New York: Basic Books, 1999)
    • (1999) Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era
    • Tyler May, E.1
  • 120
    • 0037756279 scopus 로고
    • Our Skirts Gave Them Courage : The Civil Defense Protest Movement in New York City
    • See, Meyerowitz ed
    • See Dee Garrison, '"Our Skirts Gave Them Courage" : The Civil Defense Protest Movement in New York City, 1955-1961', in Meyerowitz (ed.), Not June Cleaver, pp. 201-26
    • (1955) Not June Cleaver , pp. 201-226
    • Garrison, D.1
  • 122
    • 35348831793 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Laura McEnaney, Civil Defense Begins at Home: Militarization Meets Everyday Life in the Fifties (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000).
    • Laura McEnaney, Civil Defense Begins at Home: Militarization Meets Everyday Life in the Fifties (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000).
  • 124
    • 84901878507 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also Michael Foley, 'The Point of Ultimate Indignity or a Beloved Community? The Draft Resistance Movement and New Left Gender Dynamics', in John McMillian and Paul Buhle (eds), The New Left Revisited (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2003), pp. 178-98, esp. pp. 179, 183-6
    • See also Michael Foley, 'The "Point of Ultimate Indignity" or a "Beloved Community?" The Draft Resistance Movement and New Left Gender Dynamics', in John McMillian and Paul Buhle (eds), The New Left Revisited (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2003), pp. 178-98, esp. pp. 179, 183-6
  • 126
    • 35348813812 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For the debate on universal military training in the post-war period, see Michael J. Hogan, A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945-1954 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998). On the notion of the 'free world', see Wittner, Rebels against War, p. 99.
    • For the debate on universal military training in the post-war period, see Michael J. Hogan, A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945-1954 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998). On the notion of the 'free world', see Wittner, Rebels against War, p. 99.
  • 127
    • 35348831192 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See e.g., Paul Fussell, Doing Battle: The Making of a Skeptic (Boston: Little, Brown, 1996), excerpted in ClintWillis (ed.), TheWar: Stories of Life and Death fromWorldWar HI (NewYork:Thunder's Mouth Press, 1999), p. 25.
    • See e.g., Paul Fussell, Doing Battle: The Making of a Skeptic (Boston: Little, Brown, 1996), excerpted in ClintWillis (ed.), TheWar: Stories of Life and Death fromWorldWar HI (NewYork:Thunder's Mouth Press, 1999), p. 25.
  • 128
    • 0013092706 scopus 로고
    • Rivers and Sassoon: The Inscription of Male Gender Anxieties
    • See also, and, eds, New Haven: Yale University Press
    • See also Elaine Showalter, 'Rivers and Sassoon: The Inscription of Male Gender Anxieties', in Margaret Randolph Higonnet, Jane Jenson, Sonya Michel and Margaret CollinsWeitz (eds), Behind the Lines: Gender and the Two World Wars (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), pp. 61-9.
    • (1987) Behind the Lines: Gender and the Two World Wars , pp. 61-69
    • Showalter, E.1
  • 129
    • 35348903917 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Samuel A. Stouffer, Edward A. Suchman, Leland C. DeVinney, Shirley A. Star and Robin M. Williams, Jr, The American Soldier, 1: Adjustment during Army Life (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1949), pp. 208-9; on reluctance and disillusionment, see p. 450.
    • Samuel A. Stouffer, Edward A. Suchman, Leland C. DeVinney, Shirley A. Star and Robin M. Williams, Jr, The American Soldier, vol. 1: Adjustment during Army Life (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1949), pp. 208-9; on reluctance and disillusionment, see p. 450.
  • 130
    • 35348921237 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'The Army and You' pamphlet (cited above) declared that the Army was 'part of your payment on a great national insurance policy'; one's mettle would be tested by deprivation, and later one would regain 'those civilian privileges and luxuries which you temporarily forego'.
    • 'The Army and You' pamphlet (cited above) declared that the Army was 'part of your payment on a great national insurance policy'; one's mettle would be tested by deprivation, and later one would regain 'those civilian privileges and luxuries which you temporarily forego'.


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