Preventing bacterial disease in the HIV-infected of sub-Saharan Africa: The role of cotrimoxazole and the pneumococcal vaccines

Current HIV/AIDS Reports

Volumn 4, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 141-146

  Spencer, David C ^a  

^a Toga Laboratory and Kimera Consultants   (South Africa)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; COTRIMOXAZOLE; FANSIDAR; PENICILLIN G; PNEUMOCOCCUS VACCINE; POLYSACCHARIDE VACCINE;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; BACTERIAL STRAIN; CD4 LYMPHOCYTE COUNT; CLINICAL STUDY; CLINICAL TRIAL; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; COTE D'IVOIRE; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG INHIBITION; EPIDEMIC; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; PNEUMONIA; PROPHYLAXIS; REVIEW; SOUTH AFRICA; STREPTOCOCCUS INFECTION; TREATMENT OUTCOME; UGANDA; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA; ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS; BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; CHILD; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; INFANT, NEWBORN; PNEUMOCOCCAL VACCINES; PNEUMONIA, PNEUMOCYSTIS; TRIMETHOPRIM-SULFAMETHOXAZOLE COMBINATION; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION;

EID: 34848898434     PISSN: 15483568     EISSN: 15483576     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11904-007-0021-x     Document Type: Review

References (59)

1. Groenewald P, Nannan N, Bourne D, et al.: Identifying deaths from AIDS in South Africa. AIDS 2005, 19:193-201.
2. Simelela NP: National Antiretroviral Treatment Guidelines for South Africa. National Department of Health. Pretoria, South Africa: Jacana; 2004:3.
3. Badri M, Lawn SD, Wood R: Short-term risk of AIDS or death in people infected with HIV-1 before antiretroviral therapy in South Africa: a longitudinal study. Lancet 2006, 368:1254-1259
4. Corbett EL, Churchyard GJ, Charalambos S, et al.: Morbidity and mortality in South African gold miners: impact of untreated disease due to human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis 2002, 34:1251-1258.
5. Chintu C, Mudenda V, Lucas S, et al.: Lung diseases at necropsy in African children dying from respiratory illnesses: a descriptive necropsy study. Lancet 2002, 360:985-990.
6. Watera C, Todd J, Muwonge R, et al.: Feasibility and effectiveness of cotrimoxazole prophylaxis for HIV-1-infected adults attending an HIV/AIDS clinic in Uganda. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2006, 42:373-378.
7. Anglaret X, Toure S, Ouassa T, et al.: Thresholds of CD4 cells for initiating trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole prophylaxis in west Africa [research letter]. AIDS 2000, 14:2628-2629.
8. Sinha A, Levine O, Knoll MD, Lieu TA: Cost-effectiveness of pneumococcal conjugate vaccination in the prevention of child mortality: an international economic analysis. Lancet 2007, 369:389-396. These authors have analyzed vaccine studies in both the developed and developing worlds and demonstrate that with funding from the Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunizations initiative, pneumococcal vaccination in developing countries is affordable and cost-effective. This paper places the responsibility for vaccination in the developing regions in the hands of the international community.
9. Whitney CG, Pilishvili T, Farley MM, et al.: Effectiveness of seven-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine against invasive pneumococcal disease: a matched case-control study. Lancet 2006, 368:1495-1502.
10. Huovinen P: Resistance to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Clin Infect Dis 2001, 32:1608-1614.
11. Masters PA, O'Bryan TA, Zurlo J, et al.: Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole revisited. Arch Intern Med 2003, 163:402-410.
12. Roper C, Pearce R, Bredenkamp B, et al.: Antifolate antimalarial resistance in southeast Africa: a population-based analysis. Lancet 2003, 361:1174-1181.
13. Feikin DR, Dowell SF, Nwanyanwu OC, et al.: Increased carriage of trimethoprim-supfamethoxazole resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in Malawian children after treatment with sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine. J Infect Dis 2000, 181:1501-1505.
14. Ma L, Borio L, Masur H, Kovacs JA: Pneumocystis carinii dihydropteroate synthase but not dihydrofolate reductase gene mutations correlate with prior trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole or daspone use. J Infect Dis 1999, 180:1969-1978.
15. Ruffini DD, Madhi SA: The high burden of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in Africa HIV-1-infected children hospitalized for severe pneumonia. AIDS 2002, 16:105-112.
16. Anglaret X, Chene G, Attia A, et al.: Early chemoprophylaxis with trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole for HIV-1-infected adults in Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire: a randomized trial. Lancet 1999, 353:1463-1468.
17. Wiktor SZ, Sassan-Morokro M, Grant AD, et al.: Efficacy of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole prophylaxis to decrease morbidity and mortality in HIV-1-infected patients with tuberculosis in Abijan, Cote d'Ivoire: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet 1999, 353:1469-1475.
18. Mermin J, Lule J, Ekwaru JP, et al.: Effect of co-trimoxa zole prophylaxis, morbidity, mortality, CD4-cell count, and viral load in HIV infection in rural Uganda. Lancet 2004, 364:1428-1434. This is an excellent paper that demonstrates the value of CTX prophylaxis in an African region noted for the high incidence of both malaria and HIV infection.
19. Mermin J, Lule J, Ekwaru JP, et al.: Cotrimoxazole prophylaxis by HIV-infected persons in Uganda reduces morbidity and mortality among HIV-uninfected family members. AIDS 2005, 19:1035-1042.
20. Mermin J, Ekwaru JP, Liechty CA, et al.: Effect of cotrimoxazole, antiretroviral therapy, and insecticide-treated bednets on the frequency of malaria in HIV-1-infected adults in Uganda: a prospective cohort study. Lancet 2006, 367:1256-1261.
21. Mermin J, Lule JR, Ekwaru JP, Pitter C: Should cotrimoxaozle prophylaxis be taken by all adults with HIV in Africa? AIDS 2005, 19:845-846.
22. Chintu C, Bhat GJ, Walker AS, et al.: Co-trimoxazole as prophylaxis against opportunistic infections in HIV-infected Zambian children (CHAP): a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2004, 364:1865-1871.
23. Fisk DT, Mesnick S, Kazazjian PH: Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients in the developing world who have acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Clin Infect Dis 2003, 36:70-78.
24. Madhi SA, Cutland C, Ismail K, et al.: Ineffectiveness of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole prophylaxis and the importance of bacterial and viral coinfections in African children with Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 2002, 35:1120-1126.
25. Walter J, Mwiya M, Scott N, et al.: Cotrimoxazole prophylaxis and adverse birth outcomes among HIV-infected women in Lusaka, Zambia [abstract 126]. Paper presented at the 13th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Denver, CO; February 5-8, 2006.
26. Grimwade K, Sturm AW, Nunn AJ, et al.: Effectiveness of cotrimoxazole prophylaxis on mortality in adults with tuberculosis in rural South Africa. AIDS 2005, 19:163-168.
27. World Health Organization: WHO expert consultation on cotrimoxazole prophylaxis in HIV infection. http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/meetingreports/ ctxprophylaxismeeting.pdf. Accessed May 4, 2007.
28. Anglaret X: Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole prophylaxis in sub-Saharan Africa. Lancet 2001, 358:1027-1028.
29. Mermin J, Bunnell R, Lule J, et al.: Developing an evidence-based preventive care package for persons with HIV in Africa. Trop Med Internat Health 2005, 10:961-970.
30. Corbett EL, Steketee RW, ter Kuile FO, et al.: HIV/AIDS and the control of other infectious diseases in Africa. Lancet 2002, 359:2177-2187.
31. Jordano Q, Falco V, Almrante B, et al.: Invasive pneumococcal disease in patients infected with HIV: still a threat in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2004, 38:1623-1628.
32. Dworkin MS, Williamson J, Jones JL, et al.: Prophylaxis with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients: impact on risk for infectious diseases. Clin Infect Dis 2001, 33:393-398.
33. Watera C, Nakiyingi J, Miiro G, et al.: 23-Valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in HIV-infected Ugandan adults: 6-year follow-up of a clinical trial cohort. AIDS 2004, 18:1210-1213.
34. Gordon SB, Chaponda M, Walsh AL, et al.: Pneumococcal disease in HIV-infected Malawian adults: acute mortality and long-tern survival. AIDS 2002, 16:1409-1417.
35. Hill PC, Akisanya A, Sankareh K, et al.: Nasopharyngeal Carriage of Streptococcus pneumoniae in Gambian Villagers. Clin Infect Dis 2006, 43:673-679.
36. Klugman KP, Madhi SA, Huebner RE, et al.: A trial of a 9-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in children with and those without HIV infection. N Engl J Med 2003, 349:1314-1318.
37. Cutts FT, Zaman SMA, Enwere G, et al.: Efficacy of nine-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine against pneumonia and invasive pneumococcal disease in the Gambia: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2005, 365:1139-1146. This paper discusses the efficacy of a conjugate vaccine in a rural populations accessed through the mother-child-health clinic system of the Gambia.
38. Madhi SA, Kuwanda L, Cutland C, Klugman KP: The impact of a 9-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on the public health burden of pneumonia in HIV-infected and uninfected children. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 40:1511-1518.
39. Levine OS, O'Brien KL, Knoll M, et al.: Pneumococcal vaccination in developing countries. Lancet 2006, 367:1880-1882.
40. Whitney CG, Schaffner W, Butler JC: Rethinking recommendations for use of pneumococcal vaccines in adults. Clin Infect Dis 2001, 33:662-675.
41. Dworkin MS, Ward JW, Hanson DL, et al.: Pneumococcal disease among the human immunodeficiency virus-infected persons: incidence, risk factors, and impact of vaccination. Clin Infect Dis 2001, 32:794-800.
42. Gilks CF, Ojoo SA, Ojoo JC, et al.: Invasive pneumococcal disease in a cohort of predominantly HIV-1 infected female sex workers in Nairobi, Kenya. Lancet 1996, 347:718-723.
43. French N, Nakiyingi J, Carpenter LM, et al.: 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in HIV-1 infected Ugandan adults: double-blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2000, 355:2106-2111.
44. Benson CA, Kaplan JE, Masur H, et al.: Treating opportunistic infections among HIV-infected adults and adolescents: recommendations from CDC, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association/Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 40:S151.
45. Mofenson LM, Oleske J, Serchuck L, et al.: Treating opportunistic infections among HIV-exposed and infected children: recommendations from CDC, the National Institutes of Health, and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 40:S20.
46. Long SS: Capsules, clones, and curious events: pneumococcus under fire from polysaccharide conjugate vaccine [editorial]. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 41:30-34. This editorial deals comprehensively with the issues surrounding the use of conjugate vaccines. The author unpacks concerns of replacement and capsular switching with clarity and insight.
47. Giebink GS: The prevention of pneumococcal disease in children. N Engl J Med 2001, 345:1177-1183.
48. Greenwood B: Interpreting vaccine efficacy [editorial]. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 40:1519-520.
49. Kyaw MH, Lynfield R, Schaffner W, et al.: Effect of introduction of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. N Engl J Med 2006, 354:1455-1463.
50. O'Brien KL, Moulton LH, Reid R, et al.: Efficacy and safety of seven-valent conjugate pneumococcal vaccine in American Indian children: group randomized trial. Lancet 2003, 362:355-361.
51. Byington CL, Samore MH, Stoddard GJ, et al.: Temporal trends of invasive disease due to Streptococcus pneumoniae among children in the intermountain West: emergence of nonvaccine serogroups. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 41:21-29.
52. Whitney CG, Farley MM, Hadler J, et al.: Decline in invasive pneumococcal disease after the introduction of protein-polysaccharide conjugate vaccine. N Engl J Med 2003, 348:1737-1746.
53. Talbot TR, Poehling KA, Hartert TV, et al.: Reduction in high rates of antibiotic-nonsusceptible invasive pneumococcal disease in Tennessee after introduction of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. Clin Infect Dis 2004, 39:641-648.
54. Mbelle N, Huebner RE, Wasas AD, et al.: Immunogenicity and impact on nasopharyngeal carriage of a nonavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. J Infect Dis 1999, 180:1171-1178.
55. Recommended childhood and adolescent immunization schedule, United States, 2006. MMWR 2006, 54:Q1-Q4.
56. Musher DM: Pneumococcal vaccine - direct and indirect ("herd") effects [editorial]. N Engl J Med 2006, 354:1522-1524.
57. Porat N, Arguedas A, Spratt BG, et al.: Emergence of penicillin-nonsusceptible Streptococcus pneumoniae clones expressing serotypes not present in the antipneumococcal conjugate vaccine. J Infect Dis 2004, 190:2154-2162.
58. Lebel MH, Kellner JD, Ford-Jones EL, et al.: A pharmacoeconomic evaluation of 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in Canada. Clin Infect Dis 2003, 36:259-268.
59. Black RE, Morris SS, Bryce J: Where and why are 10 million children dying every year? Lancet 2003, 361:2226-2234.