A tale of two priests and two struggles: Liberation theology from dictatorship to democracy in the Brazilian Northeast

Americas

Volumn 63, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 409-443

  French, Jan Hoffman ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF RICHMOND   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34848861824     PISSN: 00031615     EISSN: 15336247     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/tam.2007.0016     Document Type: Review

References (122)

1. Madeleine Adriance, Opting for the Poor: Brazilian Catholicism in Transition (Kansas City, MO: Sheed & Ward, 1986)
2. Michael Löwy, The War of Gods: Religion and Politics in Latin America (London; New York: Verso, 1996), pp. 40, 2
3. Löwy, The War of Gods, p. 41
4. Phillip Berryman, Liberation Theology: The Essential Facts About the Revolutionary Movement in Latin America and Beyond (New York: Pantheon, 1987), pp. 5, 6
5. For a succinct discussion of the history and status of liberation theology, see Claudio de Oliveira Ribeiro, "Has Liberation Theology Died? Reflections on the Relationship between Community Life and the Globalization of the Economic System," The Ecumenical Review 51:3 (July 1999), pp. 304-14
6. Berryman, Liberation Theology, p. 5
7. Gustavo Gutierrez, Teologia da Libertação (Petrópolis: Vozes, 1975 [1971 in Spanish])
8. For a specific treatment of this issue, see Jan Hoffman French, "Dancing for Land: Law-Making and Cultural Performance in Northeastern Brazil," Political and Legal Anthropology Review (PoLAR) 25:1 (May 2002), pp. 19-36
9. Jan Hoffman French, "The Rewards of Resistance: Legalizing Identity among Descendants of Índios and Fugitive Slaves in Northeastern Brazil" (Ph.D., Duke University, 2003)
10. In 1960, the diocese of Aracaju, Sergipe, was divided into three dioceses-Aracaju, Propriá, and Estância. In 2002, 97.85% of the population of the Estância diocese was Catholic (5th in the nation); while Propriá was 96.78% Catholic (12th). The percentage of Catholics in the Propriá diocese has gone down less than 1% since 1966. Aracaju has fallen from 97% in 1976 to 76.8% in 2002 (www.catholic-hierarchy.org, accessed May 21, 2005), a trend that is repeated in major urban centers around the country, i.e. Rio (54%), Recife (62%), and São Paulo (68%) according to the 2000 census. See Cesar Romero Jacob, Dora Rodrigues Hees, Philippe Waniez, and Violette Brustlein, Atlas da Filiação Religiosa E Indicadores Sociais No Brasil (Rio de Janeiro; São Paulo: Editora PUC-Rio; Loyola; CNBB, 2003)
11. In fact, the São Francisco River valley that runs through the Propriá diocese, then through Bahia and into Minas Gerais is known for its continuing loyalty to Catholicism, with percentages of Catholics remaining in the nineties (Jacob et al., Atlas, p. 15). It is significant that although Church growth is slower than the growth of the overall Brazilian population (over 170 million), 125.5 million people declared themselves to be Catholic in 2000, the largest number of Catholics in a single country. As of 2005, estimates have increased to over 151 million Brazilian Catholics (BBC News In Depth, April 1, 2005, http://newswww.bbc.net.uk/2/low/in_depth/4243727.stm, accessed June 25, 2005)
12. Goetz Frank Ottmann, Lost for Words? Brazilian Liberationism in the 1990s (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2002), p. 15
13. Daniel Levine, "Review Essay: On Premature Reports of the Death of Liberation Theology," The Review of Politics 57:1 (Winter 1995), pp. 105-32.
14. Ottmann, Lost for Words? p. 15
15. Manuel Vásquez (The Brazilian Popular Church and the Crisis of Modernity. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998, p. 110, n. 18)
16. The Atlas da Filiação Religiosa e Indicadores Sociais no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro; São Paulo: Editora PUC-Rio; Loyola; CNBB, 2003) explains that the territory of where Catholicism has remained strongest is in the largest part of the Northeast (excluding western Maranhão and southeastern Bahia), almost the entire state of Minas Gerais, and the central part of Santa Catarina and regions near the south of Paraná and the north of Rio Grande do Sul. "With respect to the Northeast, it includes low density areas, particularly the sertão, where there is a strong, old, and efficient social and political control by the traditional oligarchies
17. An analysis of the 2000 census by Alberto Antoniazzi ("As Religiões No Brasil Segundo O Censo De 2000." Revista de Estudos da Religião 2003, 2 (2003), pp. 75-80, p. 80) reveals that "the most Catholic states belong to those northeastern states with arid interiors (Piauí 91.4%, Ceará 84.9%, Paraíba 81.7%, Maranhão 83%, Alagoas 81.9%, Sergipe 81.7%, Rio Grande do Norte 81.7%)."
18. Madeleine Cousineau Adriance, Promised Land: Base Christian Communities and the Struggle for the Amazon, Suny Series in Religion, Culture, and Society (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995), p. 167
19. Vásquez, The Brazilian Popular Church and the Crisis of Modernity, p. 1
20. W. E. Hewitt, Base Christian Communities and Social Change in Brazil (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991)
21. Charmain Levy, "Cebs in Crisis: Leadership Structures in the São Paulo Area," in The Church at the Grassroots in Latin America: Perspectives on Thirty Years of Activism, eds. John Burdick and W. E. Hewitt (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2000), pp. 167-82
22. Scott Mainwaring, "Grass-Roots Catholic Groups and Politics in Brazil," in The Progressive Church in Latin America, eds. Scott Mainwaring and Alexander Wilde (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1989), pp. 151-92
23. David Tombs, Latin American Liberation Theology, Religion in the Americas Series, V. 1 (Boston: Brill Academic Publishers, 2002), pp. 165-177
24. For a fine-grained picture of Catholic activism in an urban setting, see Ana Maria Doimo, "Social Movements and the Catholic Church in Vitória, Brazil," in The Progressive Church in Latin America, eds. Scott Mainwaring and Alexander Wilde (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1989), pp. 193-223
25. Sue Branford, and Jan Rocha, Cutting the Wire: The Story of the Landless Movement in Brazil (London: Latin American Bureau, 2002), pp. 42-43
26. John Burdick, Legacies of Liberation: The Progressive Catholic Church in Brazil at the Start of a New Millennium (Aldershot; Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2004), pp. 101-135
27. Peter P. Houtzager, "Collective Action and Political Authority: Rural Workers, Church, and State in Brazil," Theory and Society 30 (2001), pp. 1-45
28. See e.g. Adriance, Promised Land
29. Madeleine Adriance, "Agents of Change: The Roles of Priests, Sisters, and Lay Workers in the Grassroots Catholic Church in Brazil," Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 30:3 (September 1991), pp. 292-305
30. Luiz Alberto Gómez de Souza, "As Várias Faces da Igreja Católica," Estudos Avançados 18:52 (2004), pp. 77-95.
31. See e.g. John Burdick, Looking for God in Brazil: The Progressive Catholic Church in Urban Brazil's Religious Arena (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993)
32. Edward L. Cleary, and Hannah W. Stewart-Gambino, Conflict and Competition: The Latin American Church in a Changing Environment (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992)
33. Jean Daudelin, and W.E. Hewitt, "Churches and Politics in Latin America: Catholicism at the Crossroads," Third World Quarterly 16:2 (June 1995), pp. 221-36
34. Bryan L. Kennedy, "Book Review: Goetz Frank Ottmann, Lost for Words? Brazilian Liberationism in the 1990s. University of Pittsburgh Press, 2002," Bulletin of Hispanic Studies 81:4 (October 2004), pp. 575-76
35. Robin Nagle, Claiming the Virgin: The Broken Promise of Liberation Theology in Brazil (New York: Routledge, 1997)
36. Burdick, Legacies of Liberation
37. Levine, "Review Essay: On Premature Reports of the Death of Liberation Theology;"
38. Vazquez, The Brazilian Popular Church and the Crisis of Modernity
39. The first quote is from W.E. Hewitt, "Introduction: The Legacy of the Progressive Church in Latin America" In The Church at the Grassroots in Latin America: Perspectives on Thirty Years of Activism, edited by John Burdick and W. E. Hewitt, pp. vii-xix (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2000), p. ix
40. and the second is from John Burdick, "Afterword" In The Church at the Grassroots in Latin America: Perspectives on Thirty Years of Activism, edited by John Burdick and W. E. Hewitt (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2000), p. 205
41. Burdick, "Afterword," p. 205
42. Vázquez, The Brazilian Popular Church and the Crisis of Modernity, p. 102 (explicating the progressive reading of the crisis)
43. Ottmann, Lost for Words? adds to this list complacency associated with improvements in living conditions and what he considers the historical inflexibility of liberationist discourse. Vázquez later (p. 221) enunciates his theory as to the "institutional, structural, and systemic obstacles that hinder the production, circulation, and reception of the liberationist messages on the ground." Those obstacles include "the conservative Vatican offensive, the persistence of clientelism and political corruption, the economic crisis, the restructuring of the Brazilian work force, a legitimation crisis that undermines the development of Brazilian civil society, the crisis of the Latin American left and, more broadly, of modern emancipatory discourses, the rise of a populist right, and the advent of a new phase of capitalist accumulation" (Vázquez, p. 222)
44. See e.g. R. Andrew Chestnut, Competitive Spirits: Latin America's New Religious Economy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003)
45. R. Andrew Chestnut, Born Again in Brazil: The Pentecostal Boom and the Pathogens of Poverty (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1997)
46. Anthony James Gill, Rendering Unto Caesar: The Catholic Church and the State in Latin America (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1998)
47. Rowan Ireland, Kingdoms Come: Religion and Politics in Brazil, Pitt Latin American Series (Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991)
48. David Stoll, Is Latin America Turning Protestant?: The Politics of Evangelical Growth (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990)
49. Virginia Garrard-Burnett, and David Stoll, Rethinking Protestantism in Latin America (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993)
50. See also Frances Hagopian, "Latin American Catholicism in an Age of Religious and Political Pluralism: A Framework for Analysis," Paper presented at the conference on Contemporary Catholicism, Religious Pluralism, and Democracy in Latin America: Challenges, Responses, and Impact, Notre Dame, IN, March 31-April 1, 2005, as revised 2006
51. Peter S. Cahn, "A Standoffish Priest and Sticky Catholics: Questioning the Religious Marketplace in Tzintzuntzan, Mexico," Journal of Latin American Anthropology 10:1 (April 2005), pp. 1-26, 2
52. See Luiz Alberto Gómez de Souza, Do Vaticano II a Um Novo Concílio? O Olhar de Um Cristão Leigo Sobre a Igreja (São Paulo: Edições Loyola, 2004)
53. Barbara Fraser and Paul Jeffrey, "Latin America: Search for a Future, Part 1: Introduction: Power or Credibility?" National Catholic Reporter, May 14, 2004
54. Hewitt, "Introduction," p. ix
55. Dom Hélder Câmara founded the Conference of Brazilian Bishops in 1952, known for its independence and progressive stances, and the Latin American Episcopal Council (CELAM) in 1955. Dom Hélder, as a bishop and then archbishop, until his death at the age of 90 in 1999, was "a champion of Brazil's poor and a pioneer of Latin America's liberation theology movement ... which found justification for social change in the Gospel." Beatriz Lecumberri, "Brazil's Hélder Câmara, Champion of Poor, Dies at 90"(Agence France Presse, 28 August 1999), accessed July 9, 2006 at http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/42/084.html
56. Enoque Salvador de Melo, Interview by Maria Neide Sobral da Silva. Poço Redondo, Sergipe: CENDOP (Centro de Documentação e Pesquisa do Baixo São Francisco), p. 997
57. Enoque Salvador de Melo "Interview" in Osmário Santos, Memórias De Políticos De Sergipe No Século XX (Aracaju: Gráfica J. Andrade, 2002), pp. 213-217
58. (first published in Jornal da Cidade, July 29, 2001)
59. Enoque Salvador de Melo, Interview by author, Aracaju, Sergipe, 1998
60. Scott Mainwaring, The Catholic Church and Politics in Brazil, 1916-1985 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986), p. 102
61. Nelson Piletti and Walter Praxedes, Dom Hélder Câmara: Entre o Poder e a Profecia (São Paulo: Editora Ática, 1997), pp. 354-55
62. Enoque Salvador de Melo "Interview" in Memórias De Políticos De Sergipe No Século XX
63. Kenneth P. Serbin, Needs of the Heart: A Social and Cultural History of Brazil's Clergy and Seminaries (Notre Dame, IN.: University of Notre Dame Press, 2006), pp. 258-264
64. Serbin, Needs of the Heart, p. 258
65. Enoque Salvador de Melo, Interview by Maria Neide Sobral da Silva. All translations in this article are the author's
66. Paula Montero, Entre o Mito e a História: O V Centenário do Descobrimento da América (Petrópolis: Vozes, 1996), p. 110
67. Mainwaring, The Catholic Church and Politics in Brazil, p. 88
68. Montero, Entro o Mito e a História, p. 111
69. For more about this lawsuit, see Jan Hoffman French, "The Rewards of Resistance," pp. 105-108
70. see also Emanuel Jehuda De Kadt, Catholic Radicals in Brazil (London, New York: Oxford University Press, 1970)
71. José Ibarê Costa Dantas, A Tutela Militar Em Sergipe, 1964/1984 (Rio de Janeiro: Tempo Brasileiro, 1997), p. 149
72. This comes from Comunicado Mensal da CNBB, No. 231, December 1971, quoted in "Y-Juca-Pirama, O Índio: Aquele que Deve Morrer," Documento de Urgência de Bispos e Missionários, 1973. One of the signatories of this document was Dom Tomás Balduíno, bishop of Goiás, who had also been present at the creation of CIMI and in 2003, as president of the CPT, was made a member of the Council of Economic and Social Development, established by President Luis Inácio Lula da Silva
73. Seth Garfield, "The 'Greatest Administrative Scandal'." In The Brazil Reader: History, Culture Politics, edited by Robert M. Levine and John J. Crocitti (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999), pp. 270-71
74. In 1967, Attorney General Jader Figueiredo was given the mandate to investigate corruption in the Indigenous Protection Service (SPI-Serviço de Proteção aos Índios). As a result of this report, the military government abolished SPI and created the National Indian Foundation (FUNAI-Fundação Nacional do Índio). To illustrate the split in the Church's thinking at that time, the year before the bishops' statement defending indigenous rights, in 1970, thirty-two prelates in Amazonia declared the Figueiredo denunciations "exaggerated," thus supporting the Médici government. Paulo Suess, A Causa Indígena na Caminhada e a Proposta do CIMI: 1972-1989 (Petrópolis: Vozes, 1989), p. 18
75. Indigenous land rights took shape only after the military began a concerted expansion into the interior. As the government was creating administrative means for defining indigenous areas, non-indigenous settlers were invading their territory (Stephan Schwartzman, Ana Valéria Araújo, and Paulo Pankararú. "Brazil: The Legal Battle over Indigenous Rights." NACLA Report on the Americas 29:5 (March-April 1996), pp. 36-43)
76. A full history of CIMI has yet to be written. Just as CIMI remains active, so the Indian Statute of 1973 remains in force in 2006. Significantly, and perhaps in response to the CNBB's creation of CIMI, Médici vetoed the sections of the law that would have given missionaries and anthropologists the right to give assistance to indigenous groups without prior approval by the government. See Addendum to "Y-Juca-Pirama, O Índio: Aquele que Deve Morrer," Documento de Urgência de Bispos e Missionários, 1973 in Paulo Suess, Em Defesa Dos Povos Indígenas: Documentação E Legislação (São Paulo: Edições Loyola, 1980)
77. For an analysis of the importance of the definitional section of the Indian Statute for northeastern recognitions, see Jan Hoffman French, "Mestizaje and Law Making in Indigenous Identity Formation in Northeastern Brazil: 'after the Conflict Came the History'," American Anthropologist 106:4 (December 2004), pp. 663-674
78. Suess, Em Defesa dos Povos Indigéna, p. 53
79. Mainwaring, The Catholic Church and Politics in Brazil (1986)
80. Martins, "A Igreja Face à Política Agrária do Estado")
81. These statements were issued in the wake of the 13th General Assembly of the CNBB held on the 25th anniversary of the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights (Mainwaring, The Catholic Church and Politics in Brazil, 1986, p. 112)
82. A month after the bishops' statements were issued, Law No. 5,889 was enacted (regulated by Decree 73,626 of February 12, 1974) extending the Consolidation of Labor Laws to rural workers, giving them, by law, at least if not everywhere in practice, employment stability and social security (Robert W. Shirley, "Law in Rural Brazil." In Brazil: Anthropological Perspectives, Essays in Honor of Charles Wagley, edited by Maxine L. Margolis and William E. Carter (New York: Columbia University Press, 1979), p. 358)
83. Seth Garfield, "Where the Earth Touches the Sky: The Xavante Indians' Struggle for Land in Brazil, 1951-1979." Hispanic American Historical Review 80:3 (August 2000), pp. 537-63, 546
84. Seth Garfield, Indigenous Struggle at the Heart of Brazil: State Policy, Frontier Expansion, and the Xavante Indians, 1937-1988 (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2001), p. 542
85. Jan Hoffman French, The Rewards of Resistance"; João Pacheco de Oliveira Filho, ed., A Viagem da Volta: Etnicidade, Política e Reelaboração Cultural no Nordeste Indígena (Rio de Janeiro: Contra Capa Livraria, 1999)
86. Jonathan W.Warren, Racial Revolutions: Antiracism and Indian Resurgence in Brazil (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2001)
87. José de Souza Martins, "A Igreja Face à Política Agrária do Estado." In Igreja e Questão Agrária, edited by Vanilda Paiva (São Paulo: Edições Loyola, 1985), p. 125
88. Martins, "A Igreja Face à Política Agrária do Estado," p. 125
89. See e.g. Paulo Suess, "Romper o Mal-Estar na Missão: Os Povos Indígenas e a Igreja Pós-Conciliar," Perspectiva Teológica 34 (2002), pp. 11-36
90. Faustino Teixeira, "Inculturação da Fé e Pluralismo Religioso" In RELAMI (Rede Ecumênica Latino-Americana de Missiologias, www.missiologia.org. br/artigos/15_incult.php. (2002), accessed December 17, 2006
91. See French, "Mestizaje and Law Making," p. 669
92. Thomas E. Skidmore, The Politics of Military Rule in Brazil, 1964-85 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), pp. 172-73
93. Elio Gaspari, A Ditadura Derrotada (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2003), p. 474
94. "Propría: Mayor Quer D. Brandão na LSN," Jornal de Sergipe, December 5, 1978
95. Albert O.Hirschman, Journeys toward Progress; Studies of Economic Policy-Making in Latin America (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1963)
96. A goal of the Redemptorists is to reach the public that does not normally attend church, especially in rural areas, and thus are also known for their support of pilgrimages. Silvana de Souza Nascimento, "A Festa Vai à Cidade: Uma Etnografia da Romaria do Divino Pai Eterno, Goiás" Religião e Sociedade 22:2 (2002)
97. Luciano Bernardi, "Dom José Brandão Bispo de Propriá (Se)," O Mensageiro de Santo Antônio, April 4, 1984, pp. 10-12
98. Shannon Speed and Alvaro Reyes, 'In Our Own Defense': Rights and Resistance in Chiapas," Political and Legal Anthropology Review 25:1 (May 2002), pp. 69-89
99. Steil, O Sertão das Romarias, pp. 272-288
100. The national CPT was established in 1975 by the CNBB. Ivo Poletto and Antônio Canuto, eds. Nas Pegadas do Povo da Terra (São Paulo: Loyola, 2002), p. 50
101. Peter P. Houtzager, "Social Movements Amidst Democratic Transitions: Lessons from the Brazilian Countryside." Journal of Development Studies 36:5 (June 2000), pp. 59-88, 62
102. Silva and Lopes, Conflitos de Terra, pp. 77, 80. The CPT and Frei Enoque worked in parallel on behalf of landless rural workers (Interview by
103. Clarice Novaes da Mota, Jurema's Children in the Forest of Spirits: Healing and Ritual among Two Brazilian Indigenous Groups (London: Intermediate Technology Publications, 1997), p. 40
104. Magno da Silva, Conflitos De Terra E Reforma Agrária Em Sergipe, pp. 41-46
105. The 1990s saw a doubling of land conflicts with approximately 46 occupations, 32 of which were by MST; in 2001, there were 56 occupations, with 47 by MST (Eliano Sérgio Azevedo Lopes, "História dos Movimentos Sociais no Campo em Sergipe (Uma Abordagem Preliminar)." Mimeo. Aracaju, 2002)
106. Della Cava, "The 'People's Church,' the Vatican, and Abertura," pp. 159, 148
107. Serbin, Secret Dialogues, p. 12
108. Mariza Rios, Interview by author (Colatina, Espírito Santo, May 20, 2000)
109. Seixas Dória spent a year on Fernando de Noronha island with Miguel Arrães, governor of Pernambuco, and in 1998 still counted Arrães as one of his best friends (João de Seixas Dória, Interview by author. Aracaju, Sergipe, May 26, 1998)
110. Brazilian Health Department, http://portal.saude.gov.br/saude/, accessed July 11, 2006
111. Some of these figures are Frei Betto, Bispo Tomás Balduíno (head of the CPT), and Dom Mauro Morelli (Roldão Arruda, "Planalto abre vagas para radicals da Igreja," O Estado de São Paulo, February 23, 2003). This article, which quotes Frei Enoque, also discusses the influence of the CPT and CIMI in the Lula government
112. Frances Hagopian, "Latin American Catholicism in an Age of Religious and Political Pluralism: A Framework for Analysis," Paper presented at the conference on Contemporary Catholicism, Religious Pluralism, and Democracy in Latin America: Challenges, Responses, and Impact, Helen Kellogg Institute for International Studies, University of Notre Dame (Notre Dame, IN, March 31-April 1, 2005), p. 7
113. Edward L. Cleary, and Timothy J. Steigenga, "Resurgent Voices: Indians, Politics, and Religion in Latin America," in Resurgent Voices in Latin America: Indigenous Peoples, Political Mobilization, and Religious Change, eds. Edward L. Cleary and Timothy J. Steigenga (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2004), pp. 11, 16
114. Gómez de Souza, "As Várias Faces da Igreja Católica," p. 89
115. See the Technical Note from the Holy See when a representative from the Vatican participated in the International Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development (Porto Alegre, 6-10 March 2006) at http://www.ncrlc.com/ AgrarianReformHOLY_SEE.html, accessed July 12, 2006, and the statement from the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, "Towards a Better Distribution of Land: The Challenge of Agrarian Reform" (1997), which opens with the following: The intent of the present document ... is to increase and quicken awareness of the dramatic human, social and ethical problems caused by the phenomenon of the concentration and misappropriation of land. These problems affect the dignity of millions of persons and deprive the world of the possibility of peace. Because such situations are characterized by countless unacceptable injustices, the Pontifical Council ... is offering this document for reflection and guidance ... about the scandalous situations of property and land use, present on almost all continents. Drawing its inspiration from the rich patrimony of the social doctrine of the Church, the Pontifical Council ... considers it a pressing duty to remind all, above all those with political and economic responsibilities, to undertake appropriate agrarian reforms in order to set in motion a period of growth and development. There is not a moment to lose. The Great Jubilee of the year 2000, proclaimed by the Holy Father John Paul II in remembrance of our only Saviour, Jesus Christ, is a challenging call to conversion, including in the social and political fields, that will re-establish the right of the poor and marginalized to enjoy the use of the land and its goods that the Lord has given to all and to each one of his sons and daughters
116. Madeleine Adriance, "Base Communities and Rural Mobilization in Northern Brazil," in Religion & Democracy in Latin America, ed. William H. Swatos (New Brunswick, N.J., U.S.A.: Transaction Publishers, 1995), pp. 59-74
117. Rubem Fernandes, "Santos e Agentes-das dificuldades e da possibilidade de uma comunicação entre eles," Paper presented in the Colóquio Franco-Brasileiro em Ciências Sociais, Paris, April 27-30, 1989, as quoted in Vázquez, The Brazilian Popular Church and the Crisis of Modernity, p. 271
118. This is a theme that resonates with Alberto Antoniazzi's analysis of the 2000 census, in which he points out that many Brazilians "consciously practice more than one religion simultaneously." Alberto Antoniazzi, "As Religiões no Brasil segundo o Censo de 2000," Revista de Estudos da Religião 3:2 (2003), p. 77
119. Thales de Azevedo, O Catolicismo No Brasil: Um Campo Para a Pesquisa Social (Salvador: Edufba, 2002 [1955]), p. 36
120. "A Igreja no Contexto Nacional e Internacional," Grupo de Conjuntura No. 41, Instituto Universitário de Pesquisas do Rio de Janeiro, 1991
121. Ottman, Lost for Words, p. 2
122. Enoque Salvador de Melo and Roberto Eufrásio de Oliveira, "Uma Experiência Missionária no Nordeste do Brasil," Revista Mundo e Missão, 42 (2000), p. 38