How did asian Americans respond to negative stereotypes and hate crimes?

American Behavioral Scientist

Volumn 51, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 271-293

  Lee, Yueh Ting ^a   Vue, Sandy ^b   Seklecki, Richard ^c   Ma, Yue ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TOLEDO   (United States)

^b MINNESOTA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c MINOT STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

Author keywords

Asian Americans; Hate crime; Social justice; Stereotypes and stereotyping

Indexed keywords

EID: 34548775687     PISSN: 00027642     EISSN: 15523381     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0002764207306059     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (77)

1. Banaji, M., & Bhaskar, R. (2000). Implicit stereotypes and memory: The bounded rationality of social beliefs. In D. L. Schacter & E. Scarry (Eds.), Memory, brain, and belief (pp. 139-175). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
2. Boeckmann, R.J., & Liew, J. (2002). Hate speech: Asian American students' justice judgments and psychological responses. Journal of Social Issues, 58, 363-381.
3. Boeckmann, R.J., & Turpin-Petrosino, C. (2002). Understanding the harm of hate crime: Introduction and overview. Journal of Social Issues, 58, 207-226.
4. Chin, J. L. (Ed.). (2004). The psychology of prejudice and discrimination. Westport, CT: Praeger.
5. Clemetson, L. (2004, February 13). Asian-Americans note issues central to them for elections. The New York Times, p. A21.
6. Cunneen, C., Fraser, D., & Tomsen, S. (1997). Faces of hate: Hate crime in Australia. Leichhardt, New South Wales, Australia: Hawkins Press.
7. Downside of an image of success: Hate crimes rise with the prosperity of many Asian Americans [Editorial]. (1996, August 9). Los Angeles Times, p. B8.
8. Ellingson, H., & Plumm, K. (2005, October). Perception of hate crime and hate crime laws. Paper presented at the Northern Light Conference, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks.
9. Fiske, S. (1998). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. In D. T. Gilbert & S. T. Fiske (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (4 th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 357-411). New York: McGraw-Hill.
10. Fletcher, M.A. (1999, August 27). Asian American vigil decries hate crimes: Violence often unnoted, activists say. The Washington Post, p. A18.
11. Free, M.D. (2003). Racial issues in criminal justice: The case of African Americans. Westport, CT: Praeger.
12. Gutierrez-Jones, C. (2001). Critical race narrative: A study of race, rhetoric, and injury. New York: New York University Press.
13. Hall, W.P., & Hwang, V.M. (2001). Anti-Asian violence in North America: Asian American and Asian Canadian reflections on hate, healing and resistance. New York: Altamira Press.
14. Haslam, S.A., Turner, J.C., Oakes, P., McGarty, C., & Reynolds, K. (1998). The group as a basis for emergent stereotype consensus. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology (Vol. 8, pp. 203-239). New York: John Wiley.
15. Hohler, B. (1998, June 28). Klan rally bares hatred, but Jasper thwarts violence. The Boston Globe, pp. A1, A16.
16. Ichheiser, G. (1970). Appearance and realities: Misunderstanding in human relations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
17. Johnson, A. (2001). Privilege, power, and difference. Mountain View, CA ; Mayfield.
18. Jussim, L., McCauley, C., & Lee, Y.-T. (1995). Why study stereotype accuracy? In Y. T. Lee, L. Jussim, & C. McCauley (Eds.), Stereotype accuracy: Toward appreciating group differences (pp. 3-27). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
19. Kang, J. (1993). Racial violence against Asian Americans. Harvard Law Review, 106, 1926-1943
20. Kelly, R.J. (1998 a). Black rage, murder, racism, and madness: The metamorphosis of Colin Ferguson. In R. J. Kelly & J. Maghan (Eds.), Hate crime: The global politics of polarization (pp. 22-36). Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.
21. Kelly, R.J. (1998 b). The Ku Klux Klan: Recurring hate in America. In R. J. Kelly & J. Maghan (Eds.), Hate crime: The global politics of polarization (pp. 51-82). Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.
22. Kelly, R.J., & Maghan, J. (1998). Hate crime: The global politics of polarization. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.
23. Lee, S. (2001-2002). U.S. Intervention in the Middle East, the "War on Terror," and Domestic Hate Crimes: An Amerasia Journal Chronology. Amerasia Journal, 27-28, 295-318.
24. Lee, Y.-T. (1994 a). Racial conflict in academic communities: An analysis of various
25. forms of racism and prejudice. IMPART: Journal of Open Mind, 2, 78-86.
26. Lee, Y.-T. (1994 b). Stereotypes, ingroup homogeneity and social identity theory in intergroup contact and comparison. Teoria Sociologica, 3, 162-175.
27. Lee, Y.-T. (1995). A comparison of politics and personality in China and in the U.S.: Testing a "kernel of truth" hypothesis. Journal of Contemporary China, 9, 56-68.
28. Lee, Y.-T. (1996). Differences, not prejudice, engenders intergroup tensions. American Psychologist, 51, 267-268.
29. Lee, Y.-T. (2000). What is missing in Chinese-Western dialectical reasoning? American Psychologist, 55, 1065-1067.
30. Lee, Y.-T. (2002, April). Stereotypes and terrorism: What does research tell us ? Paper presented at Year 2002 Research Forum at Minnesota State University, Mankato.
31. Lee, Y.-T. (2004). Revisit stereotype accuracy: Marxian change vs. cognitive non-change. Manuscript submitted for publication.
32. Lee, Y.-T. Albright, L., & Malloy, T. (2001). Social perception and stereotyping: An interpersonal and intercultural approach. International Journal of Group Tensions, 30, 183-209.
33. Lee, Y.-T., Bumgarner, J., Widner, R., & Luo, J. (2006). Psychological models of stereotyping and profiling in law enforcement: How to increase accuracy by using more non-racial cues ? Manuscript submitted for publication.
34. Lee, Y.-T., & Duenas, G. (1995). Stereotype accuracy in multicultural business. In Y. T. Lee, L. Jussim, & C. McCauley (Eds.), Stereotype accuracy: Toward appreciating group differences (pp. 157-186). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
35. Lee, Y.-T., Jussim, L., & McCauley, C. (1995). Stereotype accuracy: Toward appreciating group differences. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
36. Lee, Y.-T., Kleinbach, R., Hu, P., Peng, Z.Z., & Chen, X.Y. (1996). Cross-cultural research on euthanasia and abortion. Journal of Social Issues, 52, 131-148.
37. Lee, Y.-T., McCauley, C.R., & Draguns, J. (1999). Personality and personality perception across cultures. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
38. Lee, Y.-T., McCauley, C., Moghaddam, F., & Worchel, S. (2004). Psychology of ethnic and cultural conflict: Looking through American and global chaos or harmony. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
39. Lee, Y.-T., & Ottati, V. (1993). Determinants of ingroup and outgroup perception of heterogeneity: An investigation of Chinese-American stereotypes. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 24, 298-318.
40. Lee, Y.-T. & Ottati, V. (1995). Perceived in-group homogeneity as a function of group membership salience and stereotype threat. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 21, 610-619.
41. Lee, Y.-T. & Ottati, V. (2002). Attitudes toward American immigration policy: The role of ingroup-outgroup bias, economic concern, and obedience to law. Journal of Social Psychology, 142, 617-634.
42. Lee, Y.-T., Ottati, V., & Hussain, I. (2001). Attitudes toward to "illegal" immigration into the U. S.: California Proposition 187. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 23, 430-443.
43. Lee, Y.-T., Pepitone, A., & Albright, L. (1997). Descriptive and prescriptive beliefs about justice: A Sino-U.S. comparison. Cross-Cultural Research, 31, 101-120.
44. Lee, Y.-T., Quinones-Perdomo, J., & Perdomo, E. (2003). An integrative model of ethnic conflict, identity, and conflict (CIC): Application to U.S. immigration and naturalization. Ethnic Studies Review, 26, 57-80.
45. Lee, Y.-T. & Seligman, M.E.P. (1997). Are Americans more optimistic than the Chinese? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 32-40.
46. Levin, J., & McDevitt, J. (1993). Hate crimes: The rising tide of bigotry and bloodshed. New York: Plenum Press.
47. Levin, J., & Rabrenovic, G. (2004 a). Preventing ethnic violence: The role of interdependence. In Y.-T. Lee, C. McCauley, F. Moghaddam, & S. Worchel (Eds.), The psychology of ethnic and cultural conflict (pp. 257-272). Westport, CT: Praeger.
48. Levin, J., & Rabrenovic, G. (2004 b). Why we hate ? Amherst, NY: Prometheus.
49. Mackie, D., & Hamilton, D. L. (Eds.). (1993). Affect, cognition, and stereotyping: Interactive processes in group perception. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
50. Malloy, T., Albright, L., Diaz-Loving, R., Dong, Q., & Lee, Y.-T. (2004). Agreement in personality judgments within and between non-overlapping social groups in collectivist cultures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 106-117.
51. Mar, E. (2001). From Vincent Chin to Kuan Chung Kao: Restoring dignity to their lives. In P. W. Hall & V. M. Hwang (Eds.), Anti-Asian violence in North America: Asian American and Asian Canadian reflections on hate, healing and resistance (pp. 77-92). New York: Altamira Press.
52. Marshall, T. (1997, October 21). Asian Americans scarce in U.S. corridors of power. Los Angeles Times, p. A1.
53. Mason, G. (1993). Violence against lesbians and gay men (Violence Prevention Series, No. 2). Canberra, Australian Capital Territory: Australia Institute of Criminology.
54. McCauley, C., & Bock, J.G. (2004). Why does violence trump peace building? Negative bias in intergroup relations. In Y.-T. Lee, C. McCauley, F. Moghaddam, & S. Worchel (Eds.), The psychology of ethnic and cultural conflict (pp. 273-288). Westport, CT: Praeger.
55. McCauley, C., Stitt, C., & Segal, M. (1980). Stereotyping: From prejudice to prediction. Psychological Bulletin, 87, 195-215.
56. McDevitt, J., Levin, J., & Bennett, S. (2002). Hate crime offenders: An expanded typology. Journal of Social Issues, 58, 303-318.
57. Moffat, S. (1995, August 1). Violent acts against U.S. Asians climb. Los Angeles Times, p. A3.
58. Noble, K.R. (1995, December 13). Attacks against Asian Americans are rising. The New York Times, pp. A16, B13.
59. Oakes, P., Haslem, S.A., & Turner, J. (1994). Stereotyping and social reality. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
60. O'Donnell, S. (1994, February 24). Attacks on Asian merchants may be bias crimes. The Washington Post, p. DC1.
61. Osgood, C.E. (1974). Probing subjective culture. Journal of Communication, 24 (1). 21-34.
62. Osgood, C.E. (1979). Focus on meaning. New York: Mouton.
63. Ottati, V., & Lee, Y.-T. (1995). Accuracy: A neglected component of stereotype research. In Y.-T. Lee, L. Jussim, & C. McCauley (Eds.), Stereotype accuracy: Toward appreciating group differences (pp. 29-59). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
64. Perry, B. (2001). In the name of HATE: Understanding hate crime. New York: Routledge.
65. Perry, B. (2002). Defending the color line: Racially and ethnically motivated hate crime. American Behavioral Scientist, 46, 72-92.
66. Petrosino, C. (1999). Connecting the past to the future: Hate crime in America. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 15 (1). 22-47.
67. Rayburn, N.R., Earleywine, M., & Davidson, G.C. (2003). Base rates of hate crime victimization among college students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 1209-1221.
68. Schneider, D.J. (2004). The psychology of stereotyping. New York: Guilford.
69. Slocum, F., & Lee, Y.-T. (2004). Racism, racial stereotypes and American politics. In J. L. Chin (Ed.), The psychology of prejudice and discrimination (Vol. 1, pp. 61-93). Westport, CT: Praeger.
70. Steele, C. (1998). Stereotyping and its threat are real. American Psychologist, 53, 680-681.
71. Stewart, J.Y. (2001, January 25). Lest hate victim be forgotten: Joseph Ileto's family felt his death at the racist's hand was being ignored. Los Angeles Times, p. A1.
72. Sun, L.H. (1997, September 9). Anti-Asian American incidents rising, civil rights groups say. The Washington Post, p. A2.
73. Takaki, R. (1994). Journey to gold mountain: The Chinese in 19th-century America. New York: Chelsea House.
74. U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2003). Section 4: Persons arrested. In Uniform crime reports: Crime in the United States. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved June 9, 2006, from http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/cius_03/pdf/03sec4.pdf
75. Virdee, S. (1995). Racial violence and harassment. London: Policy Studies Institute/Redwood Books.
76. White, R. (1997). Immigration, nationalism, and anti-Asian racism. In C. Cunneen, D. Fraser, & S. Tomsen (Eds.)., Faces of hate: Hate crime in Australia (pp. 15-43). Sydney, New South Wales, Australia: Hawkins Press.
77. Zanna, M. P., & Olson, J. M. (Eds.). (1994). The psychology of prejudice: The Ontario symposium (Vol. 7). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.