What is new in the era of focal dystonia treatment? Botulinum injections and more

Current Opinion in Ophthalmology

Volumn 18, Issue 5, 2007, Pages 424-429

  Cetinkaya, Altug ^a,b   Brannan, Paul A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

Apraxia of eyelid opening; Blepharospasm; Botulinum toxin; Hemifacial spasm; Treatment

Indexed keywords

BOTULINUM TOXIN; CARBAMAZEPINE; CLONAZEPAM; CLOZAPINE; ETIRACETAM; FLUPHENAZINE; GABAPENTIN; HALOPERIDOL; PERPHENAZINE; PHENYTOIN; SELEGILINE; TRIHEXYPHENIDYL;

APRAXIA; BLEPHAROSPASM; DISEASE COURSE; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG USE; DYSTONIA; EYE CARE; EYELID MOVEMENT; HEMIFACIAL SPASM; HUMAN; MUSCLE RESECTION; NEURECTOMY; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PHOTOPHOBIA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW; RHIZOTOMY; SURGICAL TECHNIQUE; TREATMENT OUTCOME; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT;

APRAXIAS; BLEPHAROSPASM; BOTULINUM TOXIN TYPE A; DYSTONIC DISORDERS; EYELID DISEASES; HEMIFACIAL SPASM; HUMANS; INJECTIONS; NEUROMUSCULAR AGENTS;

EID: 34547870872     PISSN: 10408738     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/ICU.0b013e3282be9032     Document Type: Review

References (63)

1. Seiff SR, Zwick OM. Botulinum toxin management of upper facial rhytidosis and blepharospasm. Otolaryngol Clin N Am 2005; 38:887-902.
2. Frueh BR, Musch DC. Treatment of facial spasm with botulinum toxin: an interim report. Ophthalmology 1986; 93:917-923.
3. Quartarone A, Sant'Angelo A, Battaglia F, et al. Enhanced long-term potentiation-like plasticity of the trigeminal blink reflex circuit in blepharospasm. J Neurosci 2006; 26:716-721. An abnormal corneal input induced by excessive blinking exacerbates spasms in essential blepharospasm.
4. Sagili S, Elston J. Facial palsy-induced blepharospasm relieved by a Bangerter foil. Mov Disord 2005; 20:1231-1232.
5. Hall TA, McGwin G Jr, Searcey K, et al. Health-related quality of life and psychosocial characteristics of patients with benign essential blepharospasm. Arch Ophthalmol 2006; 124:116-119. Compared with hemifacial spasm, those with essential blepharospasm experience a greater reduction in vision-targeted health-related quality of life and are more prone to symptoms of depression and anxiety.
6. Bhatia MS, Gupta S. Essential blepharospasm responding to Haloperidol. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2006; 18:554-556. Data from this case of essential blepharospasm with good response to haloperidol and none to other medications indicate basal ganglia-thalamic involvement in these cases.
7. Defazio G, Lamberti P, Lepore V, et al. Facial dystonia: clinical features, prognosis and pharmacology in 31 patients. Ital J Neurol Sci 1989; 10:553-560.
8. Ben Simon GJ, McCann JD. Benign essential blepharospasm. Int Ophthalmol Clin 2005; 45:49-75.
9. Scott AB, Kennedy EG, Stubbs HA. Botulinum toxin as a treatment for blepharospasm. Arch Ophthalmol 1985; 103:347-350.
10. Jankovic J, Schwartz K. Response and immunoresistance to botulinum toxin injections. Neurology 1995; 45:1743-1746.
11. Dutton JJ, Buckley EG. Long-term results and complications of botulinum A toxin in the treatment of blepharospasm. Ophthalmology 1988; 95:1529-1534.
12. Snir M, Weinberger D, Bourla D, et al. Quantitative changes in botulinum toxin a treatment over time in patients with essential blepharospasm and idiopathic hemifacial spasm. Am J Ophthalmol 2003; 136:99-105.
13. Pang AL, O'Day J. Use of high-dose botulinum A toxin in benign essential blepharospasm: is too high too much? Clin Experiment Ophthalmol 2006; 34:441-444. BTX therapy can be used effectively at doses exceeding 50 units per side over long periods with minimal side-effects and little evidence of secondary resistance.
14. Levy RL, Berman D, Parikh M, Miller NR. Supramaximal doses of botulinum toxin for refractory blepharospasm. Ophthalmology 2006; 113:1665-1668. In select patients with essential blepharospasm who are refractory to standard treatment regimens, increasing the dosage of botulinum toxin above 100U per session may decrease the interval between injections, improve the patient's quality of life, or both.
15. Jost WH, Blumel J, Grafe S. Botulinum neurotoxin type a free of complexing proteins (XEOMIN((R))) in focal dystonia. Drugs 2007; 67:669-683. NT 201, a new formulation of pure BTX type A free of complexing proteins, may have a reduced immunogenic potential compared with other BTX type A preparations with similar efficacy.
16. Anderson RL, Patel BC, Holds JB, Jordan DR. Blepharospasm: past, present, and future. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 1998; 14:305-317.
17. Elibol O, Ozkan B, Hekimhan PK, Caglar Y. Efficacy of skin cooling and EMLA cream application for pain relief of periocular botulinum toxin injection. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 2007; 23:130-133. Skin cooling and EMLA applications significantly decrease the pain associated with periocular botulinum toxin injections.
18. Sami MS, Soparkar CN, Patrinely JR, et al. Efficacy of botulinum toxin type a after topical anesthesia. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 2006; 22:448-452. Pretreatment with topical betacaine followed by skin cooling seems to have a deleterious impact on BTX type A without a significantly beneficial effect.
19. Grandas F, Elston J, Quinn N, Marsden CD. Blepharospasm: a review of 264 patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1988; 51:767-772.
20. Patel BC. Surgical treatment of essential blepharospasm. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 2005; 38:1075-1098.
21. Wirtschafter JD, McLoon LK. Long-term efficacy of local doxorubicin chemomyectomy in patients with blepharospasm and hemifacial spasm. Ophthalmology 1998; 105:342-346.
22. Putterman AM, Urist M. Treatment of essential blepharospasm with a frontalis sling. Arch Ophthalmol 1972; 88:278-281.
23. Nussgens Z, Roggenkamper P. Long-term treatment of blepharospasm with botulinum toxin type A. Ger J Ophthalmol 1995; 4:363-367.
24. Wabbels B, Roggenkämper P. Long-term follow-up of patients with frontalis sling operation in the treatment of essential blepharospasm unresponsive to botulinum toxin therapy. Graefe's Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2007; 245:45-50. Frontalis suspension can be considered as a minimally invasive but very effective and even reversible procedure in 'poor responders' to botulinum toxin, with good long-term effect and good acceptance by the patients usually with additional botulinum toxin treatment.
25. Auger RG. Hemifacial spasm: clinical and electrophysiological observations. Neurology 1979; 29:1261.
26. Bernardi B, Zimmerman RA, Savino PJ, Adler C. Magnetic resonance tomographic angiography in the investigation of hemifacial spasm. Neuroradiology 1993; 35:606-611.
27. Hosoya T, Watanabe N, Yamaguchi K, et al. Three-dimensional-MRI of neurovascular compression in patients with hemifacial spasm. Neuroradiology 1995; 37:350-352.
28. Cakmur R, Tataroglu C, Idiman F. Electrophysiologic observations on pathogenic mechanisms of hemifacial spasm: F-waves of the facial muscles and silent period evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation. Eur J Neurol 1999; 6 (Suppl):136.
29. Wang HC, Lu CH, Lee RJ, et al. Posttraumatic hemifacial spasm. J Clin Neurosci 2006; 13:683-687. Hemifacial spasm may be due to hyperexcitability of the facial nerve nucleus induced by haematoma in the lower central pons.
30. Tan EK, Chan LL. Primary vs postparalytic hemifacial spasm. Arch Neurol 2006; 63:1204. Postparalytic HFS accounted for less than 5%of the prospectively collected series of 200 consecutive HFS patients.
31. Wang A, Jankovic J. Hemifacial spasm: clinical findings and treatment. Muscle Nerve 1998; 21:1740-1747.
32. Colosimo C, Bologna M, Lamberti S, et al. A comparative study of primary and secondary hemifacial spasm. Arch Neurol 2006; 63:441-444. Out of 214 HFS cases, 48 were classified as postparalytic in nature.
33. Alexander GE, Moses H III. Carbamazepine for hemifacial spasm. Neurology 1982; 32:286-287.
34. Herzberg L. Management of hemifacial spasm with clonazepam. Neurology 1985; 35:1676-1677.
35. Daniele O, Caravaglios G, Marchini C, et al. Gabapentin in the treatment of hemifacial spasm. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 2001; 104:110-112.
36. Deleu D. Levetiracetam in the treatment of idiopathic hemifacial spasm. Neurology 2004; 62:2134-2135.
37. Urban PP. Pregabalin as add-on treatment to botulinum toxin in idiopathic hemifacial spasm. Neurology 2006; 66:1781.
38. Ito M, Hasegawa M, Hoshida S, et al. Successful treatment of hemifacial spasm with selective facial nerve block using doxorubicin (adriamycin) under local anesthesia in Japanese. Acta Otolaryngol 2004; 124:217-220.
39. Elston JS. Botulinum toxin treatment of hemifacial spasm. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1986; 49:827-829.
40. Carruthers J, Stubbs HA. Botulinum toxin for benign essential blepharospasm, hemifacial spasm and age related lower eyelid entropion. Can J Neurol 1988; 50:599-608.
41. Jankovic J, Brin MF. Therapeutic uses of botulinum toxin. N Engl J Med 1991; 324:1186-1194.
42. Shorr N, Seiff SR, Kopelman J. The use of botulinum toxin in blepharospasm. Am J Ophthalmol 1985; 99:542-554.
43. Dutton JJ, White JJ, Richard MJ. Myobloc for the treatment of benign essential blepharospasm in patients refractory to botox. Ophthal Plast Recon Surg 2006; 22:173-177. Botulinum toxin B is a useful treatment for cases that have become refractory to botulinum toxin A, although with a shorter duration of beneficial effect, and a higher frequency of dose-related side effects.
44. Ortisi E, Henderson HWA, Bunce C, et al. Blepharospasm and hemifacial spasm: a protocol for titration of botulinum toxin dose to the individual patient and for the management of refractory cases. Eye 2006; 20:916-922. The dose of botulinum toxin can be titrated to the individual patient, and the refractory cases managed satisfactorily if a logical protocol is followed.
45. Heuser K, Kerty E, Eide PK. Microvascular decompression for hemifacial spasm: postoperative neurologic follow-up and evaluation of life quality. Eur J Neurol 2007; 14:335-340. Microvascular decompression was effective and safe in 25 HFS patients over a 3-year follow-up, providing significant increase in quality of life. Seven (28%) of the patients had late effect between 6 and 14 months.
46. Magnan J, Chays A, Caces F, et al. Role of endoscopy and vascular decompression in the treatment of hemifacial spasm. Ann Otolaryngol Chir Cervicofac 1994; 111:153-160.
47. Eby JB, Cha ST, Shahinian SK. Fully endoscopic vascular decompression of the facial nerve for hemifacial spasm. Skull Base 2001; 11:189-197.
48. Park YS, Chang JH, Cho J, et al. Reoperation for persistent or recurrent hemifacial spasm after microvascular decompression. Neurosurgery 2006; 58:1162-1167. Repeat microvascular decompression of the facial nerve may be sufficient to resolve symptoms in selected patients with persistent or recurrent hemifacial spasm.
49. Kong DS, Park K, Shin BG, et al. Prognostic value of the lateral spread response for intraoperative electromyography monitoring of the facial musculature during microvascular decompression for hemifacial spasm. J Neurosurg 2007; 106:384-387. Facial EMG monitoring during microvascular decompression in hemifacial spasm may be helpful in predicting outcomes.
50. Rhee DJ, Kong DS, Park K, Lee JA. Frequency and prognosis of delayed facial palsy after microvascular decompression for hemifacial spasm. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2006; 148:839-843. Incidence of delayed facial palsy was 5.4%(higher than reported the literature) after microvascular decompression, and it did not have any striking predisposing factors.
51. Boghen D. Apraxia of lid opening: a review. Neurology 1997; 48:1491-1494.
52. Elston JS. A new variant of blepharospasm. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1992; 55:369-371.
53. Kanazawa M, Shimohata T, Sato M, et al. Botulinum toxin a injections improve apraxia of eyelid opening without overt blepharospasm associated with neurodegenerative diseases. Mov Disord 2007; 4:597-599. BTX is a good candidate for the treatment of apraxia of eyelid opening associated with neurodegenerative diseases. Apraxia observed in these diseases constitutes a form of eyelid dystonia rather than apraxia, even when no overt blepharospasm is observed.
54. Lepore FE, Duvoisin RC. 'Apraxia' of eyelid opening: an involuntary levator inhibition. Neurology 1985; 35:423-427.
55. Fahn S. Blepharospasm: a form of focal dystonia. In: Jankovic J, Tolosa E, editors. Advances in neurology: facial dyskinesias. New York: Raven Press; 1988. pp. 125-133.
56. Jankovic J. Pretarsal injection of botulinum toxin for blepharospasm and apraxia of eyelid opening. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1996; 60:704.
57. Defazio G, Livrea P, Lamberti P, et al. Isolated so-called apraxia of eyelid opening: report of 10 cases and a review of the literature. Eur Neurol 1998; 39:204-210.
58. Krack P, Batir A, Van Blercom N, et al. Five year follow-up of bilateral stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in advanced Parkinson's disease. N Engl J Med 2003; 349:1925-1934.
59. Fuss G, Spiegel J, Magnus T, et al. Improvement of apraxia of lid opening by STN-stimulation in a 70-year-old patient with Parkinson's disease: a case report. Minim Invasive Neurosurg 2004; 47:58-60.
60. Krack P, Marion MH. 'Apraxia of lid opening,' a focal eyelid dystonia: clinical study of 32 patients. Mov Disord 1994; 9:610-615.
61. Kerty E, Eidal K. Apraxia of eyelid opening: clinical features and therapy. Eur J Ophthalmol 2006; 16:204-208. Combined surgical and botulinum toxin treatment can be very effective in cases of apraxia of eyelid opening with or without blepharospasm.
62. Grivet D, Robert PY, Thuret G, et al. Assessment of blepharospasm surgery using an improved disability scale: study of 138 patients. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 2005; 21:230-234.
63. Ramasamy B, Rowe F, Freeman G, et al. Modified Lundie loops improve apraxia of eyelid opening. J Neuroophthalmol 2007; 27:32-35. Modified Lundie loops were helpful in improving the functional health of five consecutive patients with apraxia of eyelid opening.