Mind and matter - Cultural analysis in American military history: A look at the state of the field

Journal of American History

Volumn 93, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 1116-1142

  Lee, Wayne E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 34547743979     PISSN: 00218723     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/25094598     Document Type: Article

References (239)

1. John A. Lynn, "Reflections on the History and Theory of Military Innovation and Diffusion," in Bridges and Boundaries: Historians, Political Scientists, and the Study of International Relations, ed. Colin Elman and Miriam Fendius Elman (Cambridge, Mass., 2001), 359-82.
2. The U.S. Army, for example, is finishing the official histories of World War II and similar volumes for Korea and Vietnam while documenting and conducting interviews for more recent conflicts. See U.S. Army Center of Military History, CMH Online, http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/;
3. Air Force Historical Research Agency, http://www.au.af.mil/au/afhra/;
4. Naval Historical Center, http://www.history.navy.mil/;
5. United States Marine Corps History Division, http://hqinet001.hqmc.usmc. mil/HD/;
6. and Joint Electronic Library, "History Publications," http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/history_publications.htm.
7. Rick Atkinson, An Army at Dawn: The War in North Africa, 1942-1943 (New York, 2002);
8. David Hackett Fischer, Washington's Crossing (New York, 2004).
9. For reviews of the new military history, see Peter Karsten, "The 'New' American Military History: A Map of the Territory, Explored and Unexplored," American Quarterly 36 (no. 3, 1984), 389-418;
10. John Whiteclay Chambers II, "The New Military History: Myth and Reality," Journal of 'Military History 55 (July 1991), 395-406;
11. Edward M. Coffman, "The New American Military History," Military Affairs, 48 (Jan. 1984), 1-5;
12. Don Higginbotham, "The New Military History: Its Practioners and Their Practices," in Military History and the Military Profession, ed. David A. Charters, Marc Milner, and J. Brent Wilson (Westport, 1992), 131-46;
13. Richard H. Kohn, "The Social History of the American Soldier: A Review and Prospectus for Research," American Historical Review, 86 (June 1981), 553-67. For entries addressing specific issues from a new military history perspective,
14. see Peter Karsten, ed., Encyclopedia of War and American Society (3 vols., Thousand Oaks, 2005). On the cultural turn and its relation to military history, see Lynn, "Reflections on the History and Theory of Military Innovation and Diffusion," 360-63.
15. Victor Davis Hanson, The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece (New York, 1989);
16. John Keegan, A History of Warfare (New York, 1993), 3, 12.
17. Victor Davis Hanson, Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise of Western Power (New York, 2001).
18. On the use of a cultural perspective in military history, see John Shy, "The Cultural Approach to the History of War," Journal of Military History 57 (Oct. 1993), 13-26;
19. John A. Lynn, "The Embattled Future of Academic Military History," ibid, 61 (Oct. 1997), 777-89;
20. and Jeremy Black, "Determinisms and Other Issues," ibid., 68 (Oct. 2004), 1217-32.
21. Isabel V. Hull, Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany (Ithaca, 2004), 2.
22. Ibid., 97.
23. On this relationship between "layers" of assumptions and variations in military behavior in an army, see Wayne E. Lee, "From Gentility to Atrocity: The Continental Army's Ways of War," Army History 62 (Winter 2006), 4-19.
24. On the officer-soldier balance, see Gervase Phillips, "To Cry 'Home! Home!': Mutiny, Morale, and Indiscipline in Tudor Armies," Journal of Military History 65 (April 2001), 313-32;
25. Joseph Allan Frank and Barbara Duteau, "Measuring the Political Articulateness of United States Civil War Soldiers: The Wisconsin Militia," ibid., 64 (Jan. 2000), 53-78, esp. 76;
26. N. A. M. Rodger, The Wooden World: An Anatomy of the Georgian Navy (London, 1986), 205-44;
27. Wayne E. Lee, "Restraint and Retaliation: The North Carolina Militia and the Backcountry War of 1780-82," in War and Society in the American Revolution, ed. John Resch and Walter Sargent (DeKalb, 2006), 163-90.
28. Peter J. Richerson and Robert Boyd, Not by Genes Alone: How Culture Transformed Human Evolution (Chicago, 2005), 5;
29. Hull, Absolute Destruction, 94. There are parallels with Pierre Bourdieu's theory of "habitus": human behavior is patterned, based on precedent in the social group, but also subject to improvisation. Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice, trans. Richard Nice (Cambridge, Eng., 1977), 72, 79, 81, 85.
30. John A. Lynn, Battle: A Cultural History of Combat and Culture (Boulder, 2003).
31. Only representative works are discussed, primarily books. No attempt is made to provide comprehensive references on any subject.
32. John A. Lynn defines three categories of culture in the study of military history: societal, military, and strategic. See Lynn, Battle, xx. Military culture is "the ethos and professional attributes, both in terms of experience and intellectual study, that contribute to a common core understanding of war within military organizations," according to Williamson Murray, "Does Military Culture Matter?," Orbis, 43 (Winter 1999), 27-42, esp. 27.
33. For a similar formulation, see Alastair Ian Johnson, "Thinking about Strategic Culture," International Security 19 (Summer 1995), 34.
34. Russell F. Weigley, The American Way of War: A History of United States Military Strategy andPolicy (Bloomington, 1973).
35. For an important critique of some of Russell F. Weigley's terminology and assumptions, see Brian M. Linn, "The American Way of War Revisited," Journal of Military History, 66 (April 2002), 501-33.
36. I deal with this issue at greater length in Wayne E. Lee, "Early American Ways of War: A New Reconnaissance, 1600-1815," Historical Journal, 44 (March 2001), 269-89.
37. For the best summary of Native American warfare, see Ian K. Steele, Warpaths: Invasions of North America (New York, 1994). Most nonspecialists referring to Native American warfare rely excessively on two fine works that are limited in chronology and scope: Daniel K. Richter, "War and Culture: The Iroquois Experience," William and Mary Quarterly, 40 (Oct. 1983), 528-59;
38. and Patrick M. Malone, The Skulking Way of War: Technology and Tactics among the New England Indians (Lanham, 1991).
39. Armstrong Starkey, European and Native American Warfare, 1675-1815 (Norman, 1998);
40. Guy Chet, Conquering the American Wilderness: The Triumph of European Warfare in the Colonial Northeast (Amherst, 2003);
41. John Grenier, The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier, 1607-1814 (Cambridge, Eng., 2005).
42. Alan D. Gaff, Bayonets in the Wilderness: Anthony Wayne's Legion in the Old Northwest (Norman, 2004);
43. Lance Janda, "Shutting the Gates of Mercy: The American Origins of Total War, 1860-1880," Journal of Military History, 59 (Jan. 1995), 7-26;
44. Mark Grimsley, "'Rebels' and 'Redskins': U.S. Military Conduct toward White Southerners and Native Americans in Comparative Perspective," in Civilians in the Path of War, ed. Mark Grimsley and Clifford J. Rogers (Lincoln, 2002), 137-61;
45. Robert M. Utley, "Cultural Clash on the Western North American Frontier: Military Implications," in The Military and Conflict between Cultures: Soldiers at the Interface, ed. James C. Bradford (College Station, 1997), 91-108.
46. On American uses of force in smaller wars, see Max Boot, The Savage Wars of Peace: Small Wars and the Rise of American Power (New York, 2002).
47. Russell F. Weigley, A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861-1865 (Bloomington, 2000). Gary W. Gallagher has challenged the idea that Robert E. Lee was "fighting the last war," suggesting that he consistently understood that all warfare must be directed against the popular will.
48. Gary W. Gallagher, Lee and His Army in Confederate History (Chapel Hill, 2001).
49. Benjamin Franklin Cooling, Fort Donelson's Legacy: War and Society in Kentucky and Tennessee, 1862-1863 (Knoxville, 1997);
50. Mark Grimsley, The Hard Hand of War: Union Military Policy toward Southern Civilians, 1861-1865 (New York, 1995);
51. Charles Royster, The Destructive War: William Tecumseh Sherman, Stonewall Jackson, and the Americans (New York, 1991).
52. On the development of strategic culture in this period, see Mark Ethan Grotelueschen, The AEF Way of War: The American Army and Combat in World War I (Cambridge, Eng., 2006).
53. For the sense of "free security" as crucial to American military policy, see C. Vann Woodward, "The Age of Reinterpretation," American Historical Review, 66 (Oct. 1960), 1-19;
54. and Alex Roland, "Technology, Ground Warfare, and Strategy: The Paradox of American Experience," Journal of Military History 55 (Oct. 1991), 447-68.
55. Evan Andrew Huelfer, The "Casualty Issue" in American Military Practice: The Impact of World War I (Westport, 2003), ix. Political scientists have challenged the supposition of a modern American popular aversion to casualties.
56. See Peter D. Feaver and Christopher Gelpi, Choosing Your Battles: American Civil-Military Relations and the Use of Force (Princeton, 2004), esp. 95-183;
57. Christopher Gelpi and John Mueller, "The Cost of War," Foreign Affairs, 85 (Jan.-Feb. 2006), 139-44;
58. and Christopher Gelpi, Peter D. Feaver, and Jason Reifler, "Success Matters: Casualty Sensitivity and the War in Iraq," International Security 30 (Winter 2005-2006), 7-46.
59. David E. Johnson, Fast Tanks and Heavy Bombers: Innovation in the U.S. Army 1917-1945 (Ithaca, 1998); National Defense Act of 1920, Ch. 227, 41 Stat. 759;
60. William O. Odom, After the Trenches: The Transformation of U.S. Army Doctrine, 1918-1939 (College Station, 1999), 240;
61. Kenneth Finlayson, An Uncertain Trumpet: The Evolution of U.S. Army Infantry Doctrine, 1919-1941 (Westport, 2001), xvi.
62. See also Keith B. Bickel, Mars Learning: The Marine Corps' Development of Small Wars Doctrine, 1915-1940 (Boulder, 2001);
63. and Timothy Moy, War Machines; Transforming Technologies in the U.S. Military 1920-1940 (College Station, 2001).
64. Thomas G. Mahnken, Uncovering Ways of War: U.S. Intelligence and Foreign Military Innovation, 1918-1941 (Ithaca, 2002).
65. Much of this literature is operational. The best recent representatives are Michael D. Doubler, Closing with the Enemy: How the as Fought the War in Europe, 1944-1945 (Lawrence, 1994);
66. Williamson Murray and Allan Reed Millett, A War to Be Won: Fighting the Second World War (Cambridge, Mass., 2000);
67. and Peter R. Mansoor, The GI Offensive in Europe: The Triumph of American Infantry Divisions, 1941-1945 (Lawrence, 1999).
68. On the interwar army schools, see Timothy K. Nenninger, "Leavenworth and Its Critics: The U.S. Army Command and General Staff School, 1920-1940," Journal of Military History 58 (April 1994), 199-231; and Harold R. Winton, "Toward an American Philosophy of Command," ibid., 64 (Oct. 2000), 1035-60.
69. D. Clayton James, Refighting the Last War: Command and Crisis in Korea, 1950-1953 (New York, 1993);
70. Robert M. Citino, Blitzkrieg to Desert Storm: The Evolution of Operational Warfare (Lawrence, 2004);
71. Robert M. Cas sidy, Peacekeeping in the Abyss: British and American Peacekeeping Doctrine and Practice after the Cold War (Westport, 2004).
72. Richard Lock-Pullan suggested the emphasis on maneuver warfare in a hypothetical war in Germany was in part a device to solve then-evident problems in the army. Thus "doctrine itself [was] the means of reform." Richard Lock-Pullan, "'An Inward Looking Time': The United States Army, 1973-1976," Journal of 'Military History 67 (April 2003), 483-511, esp. 510.
73. Mark Russell Shulman, "The Influence of History upon Seapower: The Navalist Reinterpretation of the War of 1812," Journal of Military History, 56 (April 1992), 183-206;
74. Jon Tetsuro Sumida, Inventing Grand Strategy and Teaching Command: The Classic Works of Alfred Thayer Mahan Reconsidered (Washington, 1997). Dirk Bönker challenged the uniqueness of the American experience, asserting that navalism was a transnational movement among European and American naval officers who saw it as a solution to imperial and competitive challenges. Dirk Bönker, "Militarizing the Western World: Navalism, Empire, and State-Building in Germany and the United States before World War I" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University, 2002).
75. The partisan arguments for the efficacy of air power in World War II are well rehearsed. On the Gulf War, see John Andreas Olsen, Strategic Air Power in Desert Storm (London, 2003);
76. and Diane T. Putney, Airpower Advantage: Planning the Gulf War Air Campaign, 1989-1991 (Washington, 2004). On Kosovo,
77. see Stephen T. Hosmer, The Conflict over Kosovo: Why Milosevic Decided to Settle When HeDid(Santa Monica, 2001);
78. and Benjamin S. Lambeth, NATO's Air War for Kosovo: A Strategic and Operational Assessment (Santa Monica, 2001).
79. Linda R. Robertson, The Dream of Civilized Warfare: World War I Flying Aces and the American Imagination (Minneapolis, 2003).
80. Giulio Douhet, The Command of the Air (Washington, 1998). Douhet was only the most systematic of the interwar writers on this theory. The vision of such a style of war was current in popular thinking and writing.
81. Tami Davis Biddle, Rhetoric and Reality in Air Warfare: The Evolution of British and American Ideas about Strategic Bombing, 1914-1945 (Princeton, 2002), 174.
82. On the dismissal of alternatives, see also Johnson, Fast Tanks and Heavy Bombers.
83. Michael S. Sherry, The Rise of American Air Power: The Creation of Armageddon (New Haven, 1987);
84. Ronald Schaffer, Wings of Judgment: American Bombing in World War II (New York, 1985);
85. Conrad C. Crane, Bombs, Cities, and Civilians: American Airpower Strategy in World War II (Lawrence, 1993);
86. Mark Clodfelter, "Pinpointing Devastation: American Air Campaign Planning before Pearl Harbor," Journal of Military History, 58 (Jan. 1994), 75-101, esp. 97.
87. See also Thomas R. Searle, "It Made a Lot of Sense to Kill Skilled Workers': The Firebombing of Tokyo in March 1945," ibid., 66 (Jan. 2002), 103-33.
88. Gian P. Gentile, How Effective Is Strategic Bombing? Lessons Learned from World War II to Kosovo (New York, 2000);
89. David R. Mets and William P. Head, eds., Plotting a True Course: Reflections on USAF Strategic Attack Theory and Doctrine, the Post-World War II Experience (Westport, 2003);
90. Conrad C. Crane, "Raiding the Beggar's Pantry: The Search for Airpower Strategy in the Korean War," Journal of Military History, 63 (Oct. 1999), 885-920;
91. Dennis M. Drew, "U.S. Airpower Theory and the Insurgent Challenge: A Short Journey to Confusion," ibid., 62 (Oct. 1998), 809-32;
92. Mark Clodfelter, The Limits of Air Power: The American Bombing of North Vietnam (New York, 1989);
93. Kenneth P. Werrell, Chasing the Silver Bullet: U.S. Air Force Weapons Development from Vietnam to Desert Storm (Washington, 2003);
94. Harlan K. Ullman and James V. Wade, Shock and Awe: Achieving Rapid Dominance (Washington, 1996).
95. For more on the recent historiography of Native American and colonial warfare, see Lee, "Early American Ways of War." For the adaptive/reactive paradigm, see James Axtell, The European and the Indian: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America (Oxford, 1981), 273.
96. John Ferling, A Wilderness of Miseries: War and Warriors in Early America (Westport, 1980) ;
97. Malone, Skulking Way of War;
98. Adam J. Hirsch, "The Collision of Military Cultures in Seventeenth-Century New England," Journal of American History 74 (March 1988), 1187-1212.
99. See also Thomas S. Abler, "Scalping, Torture, Cannibalism, and Rape: An Ethnohistorical Analysis of Conflicting Values in War," Anthropologica, 34 (no. 1, 1992), 3-20. For a counterargument to Hirsch,
100. see Ronald Dale Karr, "'Why Should You Be So Furious?' The Violence of the Pequot War," Journal of Ame rican History 85 (Dec. 1998), 876-909.
101. Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip's War and the Origins of American Identity (New York, 1998).
102. Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge, Eng., 1991). The "likely" here refers not to whether rape happened, but to whether it was considered a norm. On the nature of white-Indian interaction,
103. see Daniel K. Richter, Faring East from Indian Country: A Native History of Early America (Cambridge, Mass., 2001);
104. and Karen Ordahl Kupperman, Indians and English: Facing Off in Early America (Ithaca, 2000).
105. See Brian McAllister Linn, The Philippine War, 1899-1902 (Lawrence, 2000), esp. 219-24, 322-28.
106. Mary A. Renda, Taking Haiti; Military Occupation and the Culture of U.S. Imperialism, 1915-1940 (Chapel Hill, 2001).
107. John Dower, War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York, 1986);
108. Peter Schrijvers, The GI War against Japan: American Soldiers in Asia and the Pacific during World War II (London, 2002);
109. Craig M. Cameron, American Samurai: Myth, Imagination, and the Conduct of Battle in the First Marine Division, 1941-1951 (New York, 1994).
110. See also Lynn, Battle, 219-80.
111. S. L. A. Marshall, Men against Fire (New York, 1947).
112. See also Fredric Smoler, "The Secret of the Soldiers Who Didn't Shoot," American Heritage, 40 (March 1989), 37-45;
113. and Roger J. Spiller, "S. L. A. Marshall and the Ratio of Fire," Royal United Services Institute Journal, 133 (no. 4, 1988), 63-71.
114. Joanna Bourke, An Intimate History of Killing: Face to Face Killing in Twentieth Century Warfare (New York, 1999);
115. Dave Grossman, On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society (Boston, 1995);
116. Barbara Ehrenreich, Blood Rites: Origins and History of the Passions of War (New York, 1997);
117. Samuel A. Stouffer et al., Studies in Social Psychology in World War 11(4 vols., Princeton, 1949-1950);
118. Anthony Kellett, Combat Motivation: The Behavior of 'Soldiers in Battle (Boston, 1982), 33.
119. John A. Lynn, The Bayonets of the Republic: Motivation and Tactics in the Army of Revolutionary France, 1791-1794 (Boulder, 1984), 35-36;
120. Fred Anderson, A People's Army: Massachusetts Soldiers and Society in the Seven Years' War (Chapel Hill, 1984);
121. James W. Titus, The Old Dominion at War: Society Politics, and Warfare in Late Colonial Virginia (Columbia, S.C., 1991).
122. Don Higginbotham, "The Early American Way of War: Reconnaissance and Appraisal," William and Mary Quarterly, 44 (April 1987), 230-73, esp. 257-61. Similarly, a study of the colonial Connecticut militia found its members progressively more professional and more motivated by bounties and wages.
123. See Harold E. Selesky, War and Society in Colonial Connecticut (New Haven, 1990).
124. Charles Royster, A Revolutionary People at War: The Continental Army and American Character, 1775-1783 (New York, 1979).
125. On the army's solidarity and republicanism, see James Kirby Martin and Mark Edward Lender, A Respectable Army: The Military Origins of the Republic, 1763-1789 (Arlington Heights, 2006).
126. Charles Patrick Neimeyer, America Goes to War: A Social History of the Continental Army (New York, 1996), 160;
127. Holly A. Mayer, Belonging to the Army: Camp Followers and Community during the American Revolution (Columbia, S.C., 1996).
128. Gregory T. Knouff, The Soldiers' Revolution: Pennsylvania in Arms and the Forging of Early American Identity (University Park, 2004).
129. See also Michael A. McDonnell, "Popular Mobilization and Political Culture in Revolutionary Virginia: The Failure of the Minutemen and the Revolution from Below," Journal of American History 85 (Dec. 1998), 946-81.
130. John Resch, Suffering Soldiers: Revolutionary War Veterans, Moral Sentiment, and Political Culture in the Early Republic (Amherst, 2000).
131. See also John Shy, A People Numerous and Armed (Ann Arbor, 1990), 163-79;
132. Walter Sargent, "The Massachusetts Rank and File of 1777," in War and Society in the American Revolution, ed. Resch and Sargent, 42-69;
133. and John Resch, "The Revolution as a People's War: Mobilization in New Hampshire," ibid., 70-102.
134. For more extensive reviews of this literature, see Mark Grimsley, "In Not So Dubious Battle: The Motivations of American Civil War Soldiers," Journal of Military History, 62 (Jan. 1998), 175-88;
135. and Reid Mitchell, "'Not the General but the Soldier': The Study of Civil War Soldiers," in Writing the Civil War: The Quest to Understand, ed. James M. McPherson and William J. Cooper (Columbia, S.C., 1998), 81-95.
136. Bell Irvin Wiley, The Life of Johnny Reb: The Common Soldier of the Confederacy (Baton Rouge, 1943);
137. Bell Irvin Wiley, The Life of Billy Yank: The Common Soldier of the Union (Baton Rouge, 1952);
138. James I. Robertson Jr., Soldiers Blue and Gray (Columbia, S.C., 1988);
139. Reid Mitchell, Civil War Soldiers (New York, 1988);
140. Gerald F. Linderman, Embattled Courage: The Experience of Combat in the American Civil War (New York, 1987), 60.
141. See also Reid Mitchell, The Vacant Chair: The Northern Soldier Leaves Home (New York, 1993). In this work, Mitchell analyzes how visions of proper domesticity helped shape Northern soldiers' behavior. They responded to paternalistic officers, refrained from "unmanly" sexual behavior, accused Southern women of helping bring on the war, and became more politically authoritarian. On the role of masculine ideals in war,
142. see also Michael C. C. Adams, The Great Adventure: Male Desire and the Coming of World War I (Bloomington, 1990).
143. James M. McPherson, For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (New York, 1997);
144. Earl J. Hess, The Union Soldier in Battle: Enduring the Ordeal of Combat (Lawrence, 1997);
145. Joseph Allan Frank, With Ballot and Bayonet: The Political Socialization of American Civil War Soldiers (Athens, Ga., 1998);
146. Frank and Duteau, "Measuring the Political Articulateness of United States Civil War Soldiers"; Joseph Allan Frank and George A. Reaves, "Seeing the Elephant": Raw Recruits at the Battle of Shiloh (New York, 1989);
147. Samuel J. Watson, "Religion and Combat Motivation in the Confederate Armies," Journal of Military History, 58 (Jan. 1994), 29-55. This is by no means a complete list.
148. Peter S. Kindsvatter, American Soldiers: Ground Combat in the World Wars, Korea, and Vietnam (Lawrence, 2003), esp. 125-26, 136-41, 145-54.
149. See also Thomas Earl Rodgers, "Billy Yank and G.I. Joe: An Exploratory Es say on the Sociopolitical Dimensions of Soldier Motivation," Journal of Military History, 69 (Jan. 2005), 93-121.
150. Kindsvatter followed and modified works that question the capacity of primary-group cohesion to function as a sustaining (or combat) motivation when casualty rates disintegrated units: Omer Bartov, Hitler's Army: Soldiers, Nazis, and War in the Third Reich (New York, 1991);
151. and Robert Sterling Rush, Hell in Hürtgen Forest: The Ordeal and Triumph of an American Infantry Regiment (Lawrence, 2001). On the problems of combat motivation during different technological eras in American history, see Christopher Hamner, "Enduring Danger, Surviving Fear: Combat Experience and American Infantrymen in the War for Independence, the Civil War, and the Second World War" (Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina, 2004).
152. For a review of the literature, see Higginbotham, "Early American Way of War"; and Robert K. Wright, The Continental Army (Washington, 1983).
153. Caroline Cox, A Proper Sense of Honor: Service and Sacrifice in George Washington's Army (Chapel Hill, 2004), 71. On changes in American attitudes toward the treatment of the military dead,
154. see Michael Sledge, Soldier Dead: How We Recover, Bury and Honor Our Military Fallen (New York, 2005).
155. On professionalization, see Edward M. Coffman, "The Long Shadow of The Soldier and the State," Journal of Military History 55 (Jan. 1991), 69-82;
156. William B. Skelton, "Samuel P. Huntington and the Roots of the American Military Tradition," ibid., 60 (April 1996), 325-38, esp. 326 and the sources cited there;
157. and William B. Skelton, An American Profession of Arms: The Army Officer Corps, 1784-1861 (Lawrence, 1992).
158. See also the modifications to Skelton's argument proposed in Mark R. Grandstaff, "Preserving the 'Habits and Usages of War': William Tecumseh Sherman, Professional Reform, and the U.S. Army Officer Corps, 1865-1881, Revisited," Journal of Military History 62 (July 1998), 521-45.
159. Most important for the later period is Edward M. Coffman, The Regulars: The American Army 1898-1941 (Cambridge, Mass., 2004).
160. On volunteers' overwhelming regulars, see Richard Bruce Winders, Mr. Polk's Army: The American Military Experience in the Mexican War (College Station, 1997).
161. Ricardo A. Herrera, "Self-Governance and the American Citizen as Soldier," Journal of Military History, 65 (Jan. 2001), 21-52, esp. 23;
162. Ricardo A. Herrera, "Guarantors of Liberty and Republic: The American Citizen as Soldier and the Military Ethos of Republicanism, 1775-1861" (Ph.D. diss., Marquette University, 1998).
163. Edward M. Coffman, "The Duality of the American Military Tradition: A Commentary," Journal of Military History 64 (Oct. 2000), 967-80.
164. On the shift to expeditionary forces and on colonial Americans' attitudes toward war, see John Morgan Dederer, War in America to 1775: Before Yankee Doodle (New York, 1990). Jerry Cooper's study of the postbellum militia, primarily an account of the transition from intensely localist militias to an increasingly federal National Guard, also considers the "social club" atmosphere of many militia units.
165. Jerry Cooper, The Rise of the National Guard: The Evolution of the American Militia, 1865-1920 (Lincoln, 1997).
166. C. Edward Skeen, Citizen Soldiers in the War of 1812 (Lexington, Ky., 1999);
167. Selesky, War and Society in Colonial Connecticut;
168. Marcus Cunliffe, Soldiers and Civilians: The Martial Spirit in America, 1775-1865 (Boston, 1968);
169. Mary Ellen Rowe, Bulwark of the Republic: The American Militia in the Antebellum West (Westport, 2003);
170. Michael C. C. Adams, Echoes of War: A Thousand Years of Military History in Popular Culture (Lexington, Ky., 2002), 72-109.
171. The belief in commonsense soldiering even affects historical interpretation of battlefield performance. Mark A. Weitz, "Drill, Training, and the Combat Performance of the Civil War Soldier: Dispelling the Myth of the Poor Soldier, Great Fighter," Journal of Military History, 62 (April 1998), 263-90.
172. Wayne E. Lee, Crowds and Soldiers in Revolutionary North Carolina: The Culture of Violence in Riot and War (Gainesville, 2001).
173. Lepore, Name of War, 94. Lepore also found that Americans repeatedly revised their memory ofthat war to fit their changing sense of themselves.
174. Sarah J. Purcell, Sealed with Blood: War, Sacrifice, and Memory in Revolutionary America (Philadelphia, 2002);
175. Resch, Suffering Soldiers;
176. Alfred F. Young, The Shoemaker and the Tea Party: Memory and the American Revolution (Boston, 1999).
177. David W. Blight, Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory (Cambridge, Mass., 2002);
178. Adams, Echoes of War, 130. On the memory of the Civil War and the emergence of the Lost Cause,
179. see Carol Reardon, Pickett's Charge in History and Memory (Chapel Hill, 1997);
180. Jim Cullen, The Civil War in Popular Culture: A Reusable Past (Washington, 1995);
181. Alice Fahs, The Imagined Civil War: Popular Literature of the North and South, 1861-1865 (Chapel Hill, 2001);
182. and Gary W. Gallagher, Lee and His Generals in War and Memory (Baton Rouge, 1998).
183. Two of the best-known are Stephen E. Ambrose, Citizen Soldiers: The U.S. Army from the Normandy Beaches to the Bulge to the Surrender of Germany June 7, 1944-May 7, 1945 (New York, 1997);
184. and Stephen E. Ambrose, Band of Brothers, E Company, 506th Regiment, 101st Airborne: From Normandy to Hitler's Eagle's Nest (New York, 1992).
185. Paul Fussell, Wartime: Understanding and Behavior in the Second World War (New York, 1989), 142.
186. For other recent and useful studies of the memory of World War II, see Adams, Echoes of War;
187. Michael C. C. Adams, The Best War Ever: America and World War II (Baltimore, 1994);
188. and Emily S. Rosenberg, A Date Which Will Live: Pearl Harbor in American Memory (Durham, 2003).
189. Jerry Lembcke, The Spitting Image: Myth, Memory and the Legacy of Vietnam (New York, 2000);
190. B. G. Burkett and Glenna Whitley, Stolen Valor: How the Vietnam Generation Was Robbed of Its Heroes and Its History (Dallas, 1998);
191. Ronald H. Spector, After Tet: The Bloodiest Year in Vietnam (New York, 1993).
192. For an overall look at the memory of Vietnam, see Keith Beattie, The Scar That Binds: American Culture and the Vietnam War (New York, 2000).
193. Fussell, Wartime, 139;
194. G. Kurt Piehler, Remembering War the American Way (Washington, 1995);
195. Kirk Savage, Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves: Race, War, and Monument in Nineteenth-Century America (Princeton, 1997).
196. Lawrence H. Suid, Guts and Glory: The Making of the American Military Image in Film (Lexington, Ky., 2002).
197. For an argument that this "new patriotism" is not the idealized pre-Vietnam version but a celebration of individuality's survival amid modern technological warfare, see Frank Joseph Wetta and Martin A. Novelli, "'Now a Major Motion Picture': War Films and Hollywood's New Patriotism," Journal of Military History 67 (July 2003), 861-82.
198. Such celebration of individuality can be interpreted as part of a continuing belief in the gifted amateur. Andrew J. Bacevich, "'Splendid Little War': America's Persian Gulf Adventure Ten Years On," in The Gulf War of 1991 Reconsidered ed. Andrew J. Bacevich and Efriam Inbar (Portland, 2003);
199. Andrew J. Bacevich, The New American Militarism: How Americans Are Seduced by War (New York, 2005).
200. Richard E. Beringer et al., Why the South Lost the Civil War (Athens, Ga., 1986);
201. William W. Freehling, The South vs. the South: How Anti-Confederate Southerners Shaped the Course of the Civil War (New York, 2001).
202. Other recent studies of southern Unionists include Richard Nelson Current, Lincoln's Loyalists: Union Soldiers from the Confederacy (Boston, 1992);
203. and John C. Inscoe and Robert C. Kenzer, eds., Enemies of the Country: New Perspectives on Unionists in the Civil War South (Athens, Ga., 2001).
204. Gary W. Gallagher, The Confederate War (Cambridge, Mass., 1997).
205. Mark A. Weitz, A Higher Duty: Desertion among Georgia Troops during the Civil War (Lincoln, 2000);
206. Mark A. Weitz, More Damning Than Slaughter: Desertion in the Confederate Army (Lincoln, 2005), xviii;
207. William Blair, Virginia's Private War: Feeding Body and Soul in the Confederacy 1861-1865 (New York, 1998). An award-winning study of one Northern and one Southern county reached similar conclusions but emphasized the fragility of the Northern home front rather than that of the Southern.
208. See Edward L. Ayers, In the Presence of Mine Enemies: War in the Heart of America, 1859-1863 (New York, 2003).
209. Also of note are Stephen V. Ash, When the Yankees Came: Conflict and Chaos in the Occupied South, 1861-1865 (Chapel Hill, 1995);
210. Daniel E. Sutherland, Seasons of War: The Ordeal of a Confederate Community (New York, 1995);
211. and George C. Rable, "Despair, Hope, and Delusion: The Collapse of Confederate Morale Reexamined," in The Collapse of the Confederacy ed. Mark Grimsley and Brooks D. Simpson (Lincoln, 2001), 129-67.
212. See Mitchell, Vacant Chair.
213. See also Nina Silber, Daughters of the Union; Northern Women Fight the Civil War (Cambridge, Mass., 2005).
214. Drew Gilpin Faust, "Altars of Sacrifice: Confederate Women and the Narratives of War," Journal of American History 76 (March 1990), 1200-1228.
215. Jean V. Berlin, "Did Confederate Women Lose the War? Deprivation, Destruction, and Despair on the Home Front," in Collapse of the Confederacy, ed. Grimsley and Simpson, 168-93.
216. For other works that integrate the soldier-home nexus into operational studies, see Wayne K. Bodle, The Valley Forge Winter: Civilians and Soldiers in War (University Park, 2002);
217. George C. Rable, Fredericksburg! Fredericksburg! (Chapel Hill, 2002);
218. and David Maraniss, They Marched into Sunlight: War and Peace, Vietnam and America, October 1967 (New York, 2003).
219. Ronald H. Spector, At War at Sea: Sailors and Naval Combat in the Twentieth Century (New York, 2001), vii;
220. John M. Carland, Combat Operations: Stemming the Tide, May 1965 to October 1966 (Washington, 2000), 362.
221. Fred Anderson, The Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754-1766 (New York, 2000);
222. Hew Strachan, The First World War (3 vols., Oxford, 2003-);
223. Gerhard L. Weinberg, A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (Cambridge, Eng., 2005);
224. Murray and Millett, War to Be Won;
225. John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History (New York, 2005);
226. George C. Herring, America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950-1975 (Boston, 2002);
227. Spector, After Tet.
228. Aaron L. Friedberg, In the Shadow of the Garrison State: America's Anti-Statism and Its Cold War Grand Strategy (Princeton, 2000);
229. Michael S. Sherry, In the Shadow of War: The United States since the 1930s (New Haven, 1995);
230. Ronald Schaffer, America in the Great War: The Rise of the War Welfare State (New York, 1991). On the impact of wars on local areas,
231. see Roger W. Lotchin, Fortress California, 1910-1961: From Warfare to Welfare (New York, 1992);
232. and Roger W Lotchin, The Martial Metropolis: U.S. Cities in War and Peace (New York, 1984). Fora comprehensive examination of the economic side of the links between war and society,
233. see Paul A. C. Koistinen, Beating Plowshares into Swords: The Political Economy of American Warfare, 1606-1865 (Lawrence, 1996);
234. Paul A. C. Koistinen, Mobilizing for Modern War: The Political Economy of American Warfare, 1865-1919 (Lawrence, 1997);
235. Paul A. C. Koistinen, Planning War, Pursuing Peace: The Political Economy of American Warfare, 1920-1939 (Lawrence, 1998);
236. and Paul A. C. Koistinen, Arsenal of World War 11: The Political Economy of American Warfare, 1940-1945 (Lawrence, 2004).
237. Lynn Hunt, "Introduction: History, Culture, and Text," in The New Cultural History, ed. Lynn Hunt (Berkeley, 1989), 1-22.
238. See Diana Simpson, comp., Cultural Awareness and the Military http://www.au.af.mil/au/aul/bibs/culture.htm; and USMC Training and Education Command, USMC Center for Advanced Operational Learning Culture (AOLC), http://www.tecom.usmc.mil/caocl/. For advice to military officers to avoid laundry-list lessons from history and instead to understand the deeper context and the process of historical interpretation,
239. see Antulio J. Echevarria II, "The Trouble with History," Parameters, 35 (Summer 2005), 78-90.