Early american ways of war: A new reconaissance, 1600–1815

Historical Journal

Volumn 44, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 269-289

  Lee, Wayne E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LOUISVILLE   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 79958553441     PISSN: 0018246X     EISSN: 14695103     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0018246X01001741     Document Type: Article

References (210)

1. Russell F. Weigley, The American way of war: a history of United States military strategy and policy (Bloomington, IN, 1973).
2. Don Higginbotham, ‘The early American way of war: reconaissance and appraisal’, in Don Higginbotham, ed., War and society in revolutionary America (Columbia, SC, 1988),pp. 260–312.
3. This essay was originally published in the William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 44 (1987), pp. 230–273.
4. Armstrong Starkey, European and native American warfare, 1675–1815 (Norman, OK, 1998).
5. See E. Wayne Carp, ‘The problem of national defense in the early American republic’, in Jack P. Greene, ed., The American Revolution: its character and limits (New York, 1987), pp. 14–50, for a discussion of the turn of the century Uptonian (pro-regular) v. Palmerian (pro-militia) views.
6. Edward M. Coffman, ‘The new American military history’, Military Affairs, 48 (1984), pp. 1–5
7. Peter Karsten, ‘The ’‘new” military history: a map of the territory, explored and unexplored’, American Quarterly, 36 (1984), pp. 389–418
8. More recently see John Whiteclay Chambers II, ‘The new military history: myth and reality’, Journal of Military History, 55 (1991), pp. 395–406.
9. Higginbotham, ‘Early American way of war’
10. E. Wayne Carp, ‘Early American military history: a review of recent work’, Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 94 (1986), pp. 259–284
11. Carp, ‘The problem of national defense’
12. Richard H. Kohn, ‘The social history of the American soldier: a review and prospectus for research’, American Historical Review, 86 (1981), pp. 553–567.
13. Fred Anderson, A people's army: Massachusetts soldiers and society in the Seven Years' War (Chapel Hill, NC, 1984)
14. Harold E. Selesky, War and society in colonial Connecticut (New Haven, CT, 1990)
15. James W. Titus, The Old Dominion at war: society, politics, and warfare in late colonial Virginia (Columbia, SC, 1991). The reviewers cited previously had access only to Selesky's and Titus's dissertations.
16. Mark Edward Lender, ‘The enlisted line: the Continental soldiers of New Jersey’ (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1975)
17. Mark Edward Lender, ‘The social structure of the New Jersey brigade: the Continental Line as an American standing army’, in Peter Karsten, ed., The military in America from the colonial era to the present (New York, 1980), pp. 27–44
18. Edward C. Papenfuse and Gregory A. Stiverson, ‘General Smallwood's recruits: the peacetime career of the revolutionary war private’, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 30 (1973), pp. 117–132.
19. John Todd White, ‘Standing armies in time of war: republican theory and military practice during the American Revolution’ (Ph.D. diss., George Washington University, 1978)
20. Reginald C. Stuart, War and American thought (Kent, OH, 1982)
21. Lawrence Delbert Cress, Citizens in arms: the army and militia in American society to the War of 1812 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1982)
22. Lawrence Delbert Cress, ‘Radical whiggery on the role of the military: ideological roots of the American revolutionary militia’, Journal of the History of Ideas, 40 (1979), pp. 43–60
23. Richard H. Kohn, Eagle and sword: the Federalists and the creation of the military establishment in America, 1783–1802 (New York, 1975)
24. J. C. A. Stagg, Mr Madison's war: politics, diplomacy and warfare in the early American republic, 1783–1830 (Princeton, NJ, 1983).
25. Higginbotham, ‘Early American way of war’, pp. 290–291.
26. Gary B. Nash, The urban crucible: the northern seaports and the origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, MA, 1986)
27. Charles Royster, A revolutionary people at war: the Continental Army and American character, 1775–1783 (New York, 1979)
28. Richard Buel, Jr., Dear liberty: Connecticut's mobilization for the revolutionary war (Middletown, CT, 1980).
29. See, for example, Quincy Wright, A study of war (2 vols., Chicago, 1942), 1, pp. 58, 71, 77–8, 82
30. Harry Holbert Turney-High, Primitive war: its practices and concepts (2nd edn, Columbia, SC, 1991), pp. 205–7, passim.
31. There are good short reviews of this ongoing debate in anthropological circles in Shepard Krech III, ‘Genocide in tribal society’, Nature, 371 no. 6492 (September 1994), pp. 14–15
32. John Keegan, History of warfare (New York, 1993), pp. 84–94
33. George R. Milner, ‘Warfare in prehistoric and early historic eastern North America’, Journal of Archaeological Research, 7 (1999), pp.: 108–109.
34. See also R. Brian Ferguson's discussion of this subject in ‘Anthropological perspectives on war’ (unpublished paper delivered to the Triangle Institute for Security Studies study of war project, summary conference, Wheaton, IL, 1997), pp. 12ff.
35. Anthropological work on pre-state warfare is a massive field. See: R. Brian Ferguson and Leslie E. Farragher, The anthropology of war: A bibliography (New York, 1988).
36. Lawrence Keeley, War before civilization (New York, 1996).
37. Keeley's use of statistics has inspired some criticism; see the review essay by Phillip S. Meilinger in Journal of Military History, 61 (1997), pp. 598–602.
38. Milner, ‘Warfare’, esp. p. 117.
39. R. Brian Ferguson and Neil L. Whitehead, eds., War in the tribal zone: expanding states and indigenous societies (Santa Fe, NM, 1992)
40. Ferguson, ‘Anthropological perspectives’, p. 11.
41. William Cronon, Changes in the land: Indians, colonists, and the ecology of New England (New York, 1983), pp. 85–91
42. Sherburne F. Cook, ‘The significance of disease in the extinction of the New England Indians’, Human Biology, 45 (1973), p. 501.
43. Although see Daniel K. Richter, ‘War and culture: the Iroquois experience’, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 40 (1983), pp. 528–559.
44. Helen C. Rountree supports the notion of war restrained by population loss in ‘Summary and implications’, in Helen C. Rountree, ed., Powhatan foreign relations, 1500–1722 (Charlottesville, VA, 1993), p. 221.
45. There is also a discussion of contact-era changes in native warfare in Gordon Sayre, Les sauvages Americaines: representations of Native Americans in French and English colonial literature (Chapel Hill, NC, 1997).
46. For an example of how disease affected Indian military behaviour in the eighteenth century, see Peter MacLeod, ‘Microbes and muskets: smallpox and the participation of the Amerindian allies of New France in the Seven Years’ War’, Ethnohistory, 39 (1992), pp. 42–64.
47. Adam J. Hirsch, ‘The collision of military cultures in seventeenth-century New England’, Journal of American History, 74 (1988), pp. 1190–1191.
48. There are a number of sieges described in Ian K. Steele, Warpaths: invasions of North America (New York, 1994), pp. 43, 231, 238.
49. See also Craig S. Keener, ‘An ethnohistorical analysis of Iroquois assault tactics used against fortified settlements of the northeast in the seventeenth century’, Ethnohistory, 46 (1999), pp. 777–807.
50. For ‘standard’ portrayals of early contact Indian warfare see Francis Jennings, The invasion of America: Indians, colonialism, and the cant of conquest (New York, 1975), pp. 150–151
51. Richter, ‘War and culture’, p. 535
52. John Ferling, A wilderness of miseries: war and warriors in early America (Westport, CT, 1980), pp. 36–38
53. Hirsch, ‘Collision’, pp. 1190–1191
54. Alden T. Vaughan, New England frontier: puritans and Indians, 1620–1675 (New York: 1979), pp. xix-xxii.
55. See also Jill Lepore, The name of war: King Philip's War and the origins of American identity (New York, 1998), pp. 116ff.
56. Richter, ‘War and culture’, p. 535
57. Hirsch, ‘Collision of military cultures’, p. 1191.
58. For other important work on Indian warfare in the post-contact era not otherwise mentioned here, see: Larry V. Eid,‘“A kind of running fight”: Indian battlefield tactics in the late eighteenth century’, Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine, 71 (1988), pp. 147–171
59. Bruce Trigger, The children of Aataentsic: a history of the Huron people to 1660 (Montreal, 1976).
60. John Lawson, A new voyage to Carolina (London, 1709; repr., Chapel Hill, NC, 1967), p. 208.
61. James Axtell, The European and the Indian: essays in the ethnohistory of colonial North America (Oxford, 1981), p. 273.
62. Patrick Malone, The skulking way of war (Lanham, MD, 1991)
63. Patrick Malone, ‘Changing military technology among the Indians of southern New England, 1600–1677’, American Quarterly, 25 (1973), pp. 48–63
64. Hirsch, ‘Collision ’.
65. See also the important contribution by Thomas S. Abler, ‘Scalping, torture, cannibalism and rape: an ethnohistorical analysis of conflicting values in war’, Anthropologica, 34 (1992), pp. 3–20.
66. Ferling, Wilderness of miseries.
67. Higginbotham, ‘Early American way of war’, pp. 264–265.
68. Ronald Dale Karr, “‘Why should you be so furious?”: the violence of the Pequot War’, Journal of American History, 85 (1998), pp. 876–909.
69. Frederick W. Gleach, Powhatan's world and colonial Virginia: a conflict of cultures (Lincoln, NB, 1997), pp. 52, 157–69.
70. See also: William L. Shea, The Virginia militia in the seventeenth century (Baton Rouge, LA, 1983)
71. Bernard W. Sheehan, Savagism and civility: Indians and Englishmen in colonial Virginia (Cambridge, 1980).
72. Karen Kupperman's recent book expresses concern that the English-Indian cultural conflict has been overemphasized. Karen Ordahl Kupperman, Indians and English: facing off in early America (Ithaca, NY, 2000).
73. Ian K. Steele, Betrayals: Fort William Henry and the ‘massacre’ (New York, 1990).
74. In this regard see also Gregory T. Knouff, ‘The common people's revolution: race, class, masculinity, and locale in Pennsylvania, 1775–1783’ (Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, 1996), pp. 227–275.
75. Lepore, The name of war, esp. p. 112.
76. For other examinations of the role of culture and racism in the escalation of white-Indian violence see Gregory T. Knouff, ‘Soldiers and violence on the Pennsylvania frontier’, in John B. Frantz and William Pencak, eds., Beyond Philadelphia: the Pennsylvania hinterland in the American Revolution (University Park, PA, 1998), pp. 171–193
77. Wayne Lee, The culture of violence in revolutionary North Carolina: rioters, regulators, and revolutionaries (Gainesville, FL, forthcoming), chs. 4 and 5.
78. Knouff's article is particularly good at pointing out regional and class variations in the substance of white racism; the effect, however, was ultimately the same. Cf. Edmund S. Morgan, American slavery, American freedom (New York, 1975), pp. 233, 251, 259.
79. Lepore, The name of war, pp. 118–119.
80. Peter Way examines influences in both directions: Indians adapting European practices and British regulars adapting some native techniques. ‘The cutting edge of culture: British soldiers encounter native Americans in the French and Indian War’, in Martin Daunton and Rick Halpern, eds., Empire and others: British encounters with indigenous peoples, 1600–1850 (Philadelphia, 1999), pp. 123–148.
81. John Underhill, ‘News from America’, [1638], in Charles Orr, ed., History of the Pequot War (Cleveland, 1897), pp. 84, 85
82. as cited in Hirsch, ‘Collision’, p. 1200.
83. Richter, ‘War and culture’, passim
84. Daniel K. Richter, The ordeal of the longhouse: the peoples of the Iroquois league in the era of European colonization (Chapel Hill, NC, 1992), ch. 3.
85. For a brief but compelling look at the short-term Narragansett response to the Mystic massacre see: Paul A. Robinson, ‘Lost opportunities: Miantonomi and the English in seventeenth-century Narragansett Country’, in Robert S. Grumet, ed., Northeastern Indian lives (Amherst, MA, 1996), pp. 22–23.
86. Richard White, The middle ground: Indians, empires, and republics in the Great Lakes region, 1650–1815 (Cambridge, 1991)
87. Anthony McGinnis, Counting coup and cutting horses: intertribal warfare on the great plains, 1738–1889 (Evergreen, CO, 1990).
88. For older studies of the great plains see Frank Secoy, Changing military patterns of the great plains Indians (Locust Valley, NY, 1953; repr., Lincoln, NB, 2000)
89. John C. Ewers, ‘Intertribal warfare as the precursor of Indian-white warfare on the northern great plains’, Western Historical Quarterly, 6 (1975), pp. 397–410.
90. John Morgan Dederer, War in America to 1775: before yankee doodle (New York, 1990). Other, only slightly older, works have focused on the more specific question of American anti-standing army ideology, especially within the broader ideological framework of republicanism. See n. 10.
91. Regarding African and Indian influences, Dederer claims that it was extensive; so extensive as to be undetectable (p. 19).
92. For two works that begin to consider the possibility of African influences on American warfare see Peter M. Voelz, Slave and soldier: the military impact of blacks in the colonial americas (New York, 1993)
93. John K. Thornton, ‘African dimensions of the Stono rebellion’, American Historial Review, 96 (1991), pp. 1101–1113.
94. John Shy, Toward Lexington: the role of the British army and the coming of the American Revolution (Princeton, 1965)
95. Larry R. Gerlach, ‘The British army in New Jersey on the eve of the Revolution’, New Jersey History, 43 (1975), pp. 5–36
96. John Phillip Reid, In a defiant stance: the condition of law in Massachusetts Bay, the Irish comparison, and the coming of the American Revolution (University Park, PA, 1977)
97. John Phillip Reid, In defiance of the law: the standing-army controversy: the two constitutions and the coming of the American Revolution (Chapel Hill, 1981).
98. John Resch, Suffering soldiers: revolutionary war veterans, moral sentiment, and political culture in the early Republic (Amherst, MA, 2000), p. 38, has offered further support for doubting the thoroughness of anti-standing army sentiment.
99. Dederer, War in America, p. 182.
100. James Michael Hill, Celtic warfare, 1595–1763 (Edinburgh, 1986). On the American side of the Atlantic, Hill concentrates on the Highlander regiments in the British army and does not examine the military experience of the Scotch-Irish backcountry militia recruits.
101. Grady McWhiney has written in this regard, but probably goes too far. Grady McWhiney, Cracker culture: Celtic ways in the old south (Tuscaloosa, 1988)
102. Grady McWhiney, ‘Ethnic roots of southern violence’, in William Cooper, Michael F. Holt, and John McCardell, eds., A master's due: essays in honor of David Herbert Donald (Baton Rouge, 1985), pp. 112–137.
103. See the discussion of these works in Gregory H. Nobles, ‘Breaking into the backcountry: new approaches to the early American frontier, 1750–1800’, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 46 (1989), pp. 651–652.
104. Lee, The culture of violence, chs. 5–7.
105. See also T. H. Breen, Puritans and adventurers: change and persistence in early America (Oxford, 1980).
106. Other works have stressed the European influence on the Continental Army or George Washington himself: Robert K. Wright, The Continental Army (Washington, DC, 1983)
107. Don Higginbotham, George Washington and the American military tradition (Athens, GA, 1985).
108. Peter Paret, ‘Colonial experience and European military reform at the end of the eighteenth century’, Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, 37 (1964), pp. 47–59
109. Peter Paret, ‘The relationship between the revolutionary war and European military thought and practice in the second half of the eighteenth century’, in Don Higginbotham, ed., Reconsiderations on the revolutionary war (Westport, CT, 1978), pp. 144–157.
110. For example Peter E. Russell, ‘Redcoats in the wilderness: British officers and irregular warfare in Europe and America, 1740–1760’, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 35 (1978), pp. 629–652
111. Christopher Duffy, The military experience in the age of reason (New York, 1988),pp. 268–279.
112. But see Daniel J. Beattie, ‘The adaptation of the British army to wilderness warfare, 1755–1763’, in Maaretn Ultee, ed., Adapting to conditions: war and society in the eighteenth century (Huntsville, AL, 1986), pp. 56–83, for a restatement of the position that conditions in North America probably influenced even the regular, professional, portions of the British army, but more certainly added a whole new set of auxiliary troops.
113. Stephen Conway, The War of American Independence, 1775–1783 (London, 1995).
114. In contrast, Jeremy Black's survey of the war follows Piers Mackesy in preferring to emphasize the war as the last of the ancien régime's wars, although he acknowledges revolutionary elements. War for America: the fight for independence, 1775–1783 (NewYork, 1991).
115. Piers Mackesy, The war for America, 1775–1783 (Cambridge, 1964; repr., Lincoln, NB, 1993).
116. Anderson, A people's army.
117. A people's army, p. 48.
118. Titus, The Old Dominion at war.
119. Titus notes that after the Ft Necessity disaster, Virginia resolved to draft those lacking employment, and specifically exempted anyone who could vote. The Old Dominion at war., p. 59, quote from p. ix.
120. The Virginia legislature offered a £10 bounty, roughly equivalent to half the annual cash income of many small planters. The Old Dominion at war, p. 122.
121. Selesky, War and society.
122. Other important works on the social composition and/or motivations of the colonial militia include: Marvin L. Michael Kay and William S. Price Jr., “‘To ride the wood mare”: road building and militia service in colonial North Carolina, 1740–1775’, North Carolina Historical Review, 57 (1980), pp. 361–409
123. John Ferling, ‘Soldiers for Virginia: who served in the French and Indian War?’, Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 94 (1986), pp. 307–328
124. Albert H. Tillson, Jr, ‘The militia and popular political culture in the upper valley of Virginia, 1740–1775 ’, Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 94 (1986), pp. 285–306
125. Ronald L. Boucher, ‘The colonial militia as asocial institution: Salem, Massachusetts, 1764–1775’, Military Affairs, 37 (1973), pp. 125–130.
126. See, however, R. S. Stephenson, ‘Pennsylvania provincial soldiers in the Seven Years War’, Pennsylvania History, 62 (1995), pp. 196–212
127. Matthew C. Ward, ‘An army of servants: the Pennsylvania regiment during the Seven Years War’, Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, 119 (1995), pp. 75–93.
128. Three outstanding exceptions dealing with the militia are: Robert A. Gross, The minutemen and their world (New York, 1976)
129. James Boone Bartholomees, Jr, ‘Fight or flee: the combat performance of the North Carolina militia in the Cowpens-Guilford Courthouse campaign, January to March 1781’ (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1978)
130. Steven Rosswurm, Arms, country, and class: the Philadelphia militia and ‘lower sort’ during the American Revolution, 1775–1783 (New Brunswick, NJ, 1988).
131. Most work on the revolutionary era militia has focused on the question of its military or political effectiveness. The classic statements are: Don Higginbotham, ‘The American militia: a traditional institution with revolutionary responsibilities’, in Don Higginbotham, ed., Reconsiderations on the revolutionary war (Westport, CT, 1978), pp. 83–103
132. John Shy, ‘A new look at the colonial Militia’, in idem, A people numerous and armed (Oxford, 1976), pp. 21–34
133. Clyde R. Ferguson, ‘Carolina and Georgia patriot and loyalist militia in action, 1778–1783’, in Jeffrey J. Crow and Larry E. Tise, eds., The southern experience in the American Revolution (Chapel Hill, NC, 1978), pp. 174–199
134. Clyde R. Ferguson, ‘Functions of the partisan-militia in the south during the American Revolution: an interpretation’, in W. Robert Higgins, ed., The Revolutionary War in the south: power, conflict and leadership (Durham, NC, 1979), pp. 239–258
135. Robert C. Pugh, ‘The revolutionary militia in the southern campaigns, 1780–1781’, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 14 (1957), pp. 154–175.
136. Lender, ‘The enlisted line’
137. Papenfuse and Stiverson, ‘General Smallwood's recruits’. See also: Lender, ‘The social structure of the New Jersey brigade’. Other important works on the sociology and ideological history of the Continentals from the 1980s include: James Kirby Martin and Mark Edward Lender, A respectable army: the military origins of the republic, 1763–1789 (Arlington Heights, IL, 1982)
138. Wright, The Continental Army
139. Robert K. Wright, “‘Nor is their standing army to be despised”: the emergence of the Continental Army as a military institution’, in Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, eds., Arms and independence: the military character of the American Revolution (Charlottesville, VA, 1974), pp. 25–49
140. Kohn, Eagle and sword
141. John R. Sellers, ‘The common soldier in the American Revolution’, in Stanley J. Underal, ed., Military history of the American Revolution: the proceedings of the 6th military history symposium, United States Air Force Academy, 10–11 October 1974 (Washington, 1976), pp. 151–161.
142. Royster, A revolutionary people, passim, but especially the appendix.
143. James Domenic Scudieri pointed out that the ‘overwhelming majority of Continentals after 1776 were serving terms for the duration of the war or three years’: ‘The Continentals: a comparative analysis of a late eighteenth-century standing army, 1775–1783 ’ (Ph.D. diss., City University of New York, 1993), p. 45.
144. For other older viewpoints on the motivation and ideology of Continental soldiers (and seamen) see Robert Middlekauff, The glorious cause: the American Revolution, 1763–1789 (New York, 1982), pp. 496–510
145. Jesse Lemisch, ‘Listening to the ’‘inarticulate”: William Widger's dream and the loyalties of American revolutionary seamen in British prisons’, Journal of Social History, 3 (1969), pp. 1–29
146. Jesse Lemisch, ‘Jack Tar in the streets: merchant seamen in the politics of revolutionary America’, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 25 (1968), pp. 371–407.
147. John A. Lynn, The bayonets of the Republic: motivation and tactics in the army of revolutionary France, 1791–1794. (Boulder, CO, 1984), pp. 35–36.
148. For the use of his model in works on the American Civil War see James McPherson, For cause and comrades: why men fought in the Civil War (New York, 1997)
149. the important review essay by Mark Grimsley, ‘In not so dubious battle: the motivations of American Civil War soldiers’, Journal of Military History, 62 (1998), pp. 175–188.
150. Charles Patrick Neimeyer, America goes to war: a social history of the Continental Army (New York, 1996).
151. Neimeyer, America goes to war, p. 160.
152. Sellers, ‘The common soldier in the American Revolution’, pp. 155–6 found 82 per cent of his sample of the Virginia Continental troops were born in Virginia, and only 5 men of 658 were foreign born.
153. See also the critical review of Neimeyer by Harold Selesky in Journal of Military History, 62 (1998), pp. 200–203.
154. Knouff, ‘The common people's revolution’
155. Gregory T. Knouff, “‘An arduous service”: the Pennsylvania backcountry soldiers’ revolution’, Pennsylvania History, 61 (1994), pp. 45–74;
156. Gregory T. Knouff, ‘Enlistment: the complexity of motivations’, in John W. Chambers and G. Kurt Piehler, eds., Major problems in American military history (New York, 1999), pp. 87–93.
157. Knouff, ‘The common people's revolution’, p. 25.
158. Knouff, ‘An arduous service’, p. 45.
159. Michael A. McDonnell, ‘ Popular mobilization and political culture in revolutionary Virginia: the failure of the minutemen and the revolution from below’, Journal of American History, 85 (1998), pp. 946–81, quote from p. 948.
160. Higginbotham, ‘Early American way of war’, pp. 291–292
161. Nobles, ‘Breaking into the backcountry’, pp. 663–664
162. Edward Countryman, ‘To secure the blessings of liberty: language, the Revolution, and American capitalism’, in Alfred E. Young, ed., Beyond the American Revolution: explorations in the history of American radicalism (Dekalb, IL, 1993), pp. 124–148.
163. Resch, Suffering soldiers. The choice of Peterborough is significant, because it was the subject of John Shy's famous article supporting an economic interpretation of recruitment that was much cited by Neimeyer. John Shy, ‘Hearts and minds in the American Revolution: the case of ’‘Long Bill” Scott and Peterborough, New Hampshire’, in idem, A people numerous and armed (Oxford, 1976), pp. 163–179.
164. Resch's conclusions are supported by Walter L. Sargent, ‘Plymouth's soldiers: family, status, and military service during the American Revolution’, paper delivered at the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture Conference, Toronto, 9–11 June 2000.
165. Harry M. Ward, General William Maxwell and the New Jersey Continentals (Westport, CT, 1997). There are countless older studies of the Continental Army generally or of the individual state lines.
166. Lawrence E. Babits, A devil of a whipping: the battle of Cowpens (Chapel Hill, NC, 1998).
167. Holly Mayer, Belonging to the army: campfollowers and community during the American Revolution (Columbia, SC, 1996).
168. Belonging to the army: campfollowers and community during the American Revolution, p. 21.
169. Scudieri, ‘The Continentals’, is an excellent comparison of the Continental Army to other early modern standing armies.
170. Of interest in this regard is the unpublished paper by Scott Hendrix, ‘In the army: women camp followers, and gender roles in the British army in the French and Indian Wars, 1755–1765 ’. See also Edward Coffman, The old army: a portrait, 1784–1898 (New York, 1986), for the role of women in the peacetime regular army.
171. J. C. A. Stagg, ‘Enlisted men in the United States Army, 1812–1815: a preliminary survey’, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 43 (1986), pp. 615–645
172. J. C. A. Stagg, ‘Soldiers in peace and war: comparative perspectives on the recruitment of the United States Army, 1802–1815 ’, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 57 (2000), pp. 79–120
173. William Skelton, ‘The Confederation's regulars: a social profile of enlisted service in America's first standing army’, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 46 (1989), pp. 770–785.
174. Christopher Mckee, A gentlemanly and honorable profession: the creation of the U.S. naval officer corps, 1794–1815 (Annapolis, MD, 1991). Although naval history has been largely ignored in this review, it seemed appropriate to include this very specific compositional study.
175. James M.Johnson, Militiamen, rangers, and redcoats: the military of Georgia, 1754–1776 (Macon, GA, 1992).
176. M. F. Treacy, Prelude to Yorktown: the southern campaign of Nathanael Greene, 1780–1781 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1963)
177. John S. Pancake, This destructive war: the British campaign in the Carolinas, 1780–1782 (University, AL, 1985)
178. John Buchanan, The road to Guilford courthouse: the American Revolution in the Carolinas (New York, 1997).
179. In contrast, John Dederer's Making bricks without straw (Manhattan, KS, 1983) is an intriguing comparison of Greene's partisan strategy to Mao's doctrine of revolutionary war.
180. Also of value in casting light on a lesser known theatre is Martha Condray Searcy, The Georgia-Florida contest in the American Revolution, 1776–1778 (University, AL, 1985).
181. Richard Ketchum, Saratoga: turning point in America's Revolutionary War (New York, 1997).
182. His earlier works are Decisive day: the battle for Bunker Hill (New York, 1974)
183. Winter soldiers (New York, 1973).
184. Mark V. Kwasny, Washington's partisan war (Kent, Ohio, 1996).
185. Joseph R. Fischer, A well-executed failure: the Sullivan campaign against the Iroquois, July-September 1779 (Columbia, SC, 1997).
186. On the subject of logistics, Fischer should be compared to E. Wayne Carp's classic study To starve the army at pleasure (Chapel Hill, NC, 1984)
187. the more recent James A. Huston, The logistics of liberty: American services of supply in the Revolutionary War and after (Newark, DE, 1991).
188. Max Mintz, Seeds of empire: the American revolutionary conquest of the Iroquois (New York, 1999).
189. For problems with Mintz's account of the Iroquois, see the critical review by Thomas Abler, ‘Review of Max M. Mintz, Seeds of empire: the American revolutionary conquest of the Iroquois’, H-AMINDIAN, H-Net Reviews, March 2000. URL: http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path= 11449952523035.
190. Sandy Antal, A wampum denied: Proctor's War of 1812 (Ottawa, Ontario, 1997).
191. See also Robert S. Allen, His majesty's Indian allies: British Indian policy in the defence of Canada, 1774–1815 (Toronto, 1992)
192. Gregory Evans Dowd, A spirited resistance: the North American Indian struggle for unity, 1745–1815 (Baltimore, 1992).
193. Anthony S. Pitch, The burning of Washington: the British invasion of 1814 (Annapolis, MD, 1998)
194. Joseph Whitehorne, The battle for Baltimore, 1814 (Baltimore, 1997)
195. David Curtis Skaggs and Gerard T. Altoff, A signal victory: the Lake Erie campaign, 1812–1813 (Annapolis, MD, 1997)
196. Donald E. Graves Battle of Lundy's Lane: on the Niagra, 1814 (Baltimore, 1993).
197. Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: a forgotten conflict (Chicago, 1989)
198. Robert S. Quimby, The U.S. army in the War of 1812: an operational and command study (East Lansing, MI, 1997).
199. Both of these works should be used in combination with J. C. A. Stagg, Mr. Madison's war: politics, diplomacy and warfare in the early American Republic, 1783–1830 (Princeton, NJ: 1983).
200. C. Edward Skeen, Citizen soldiers in the War of 1812 (Lexington, 1999).
201. Kohn, ‘The social history,’ passim.
202. Armstrong Starkey, ‘ Paoli to Stony Point: military ethics and weaponry during the American Revolution’, Journal of Military History, 58 (1994), pp. 7–27.
203. See also Armstrong Starkey, ‘War and culture, a case study: the enlightenment and the conduct of the British army in America, 1755–1781’, War and Society, 8 (1990), pp. 1–28
204. Stephen Conway, “‘The great mischief complain'd of”: reflections on the misconduct of British soldiers in the Revolutionary War’, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 47 (1990), pp. 370–390
205. Stephen Conway, ‘To subdue America: British army officers and the conduct of the Revolutionary War’, William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 43 (1986), pp. 381–407
206. Lee, The culture of violence, chs. 4–8
207. Elizabeth Fenn, ‘Beyond Jeffrey Amherst: biological warfare in eighteenth-century North America’, Journal of American History, 86 (2000), pp. 1552–1580.
208. Hugh F. Rankin, ed., ‘An officer out of his time: correspondence of Major Patrick Ferguson, 1779–1780’, in Sources of American independence: selected manuscripts from the collections of the William L. Clements Library (2 vols., Chicago, 1978), 11, p. 294.
209. Paul A. Gilje, Rioting in America (Bloomington, IN, 1996), p. 25.
210. Marcus Cunliffe, Soldiers and civilians: the martial spirit in America, 1775–1865 (Boston, 1968).