Human capital in Central Asia: Trends and challenges in education

Central Asian Survey

Volumn 25, Issue 4, 2006, Pages 515-532

  Shagdar, Bolormaa ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EDUCATION REFORM; HUMAN CAPITAL; RETURNS TO EDUCATION;

ASIA; CENTRAL ASIA; EURASIA;

EID: 34547543582     PISSN: 02634937     EISSN: 14653354     Source Type: Trade Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/02634930701210609     Document Type: Article

References (61)

1. For a brief description of the characteristics of education systems in the former socialist countries and recent developments and reforms in education provision see, for example, Stephen Heyneman, 'The transition from party/state to open democracy: The role of education, International Journal of Educational Development, Vol 18, No 1, 1998, pp 21-40
2. for particular reference to access and achievement linked to household income and location, see John Micklewright, 'Education, inequality and transition', Economics of Transition, Vol 7, No 2, 1999, p 343.
3. The human and social capital research in Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan) employed mostly qualitative methods of analysis, including document analysis (government policy papers and key economic and education statistics, as well as secondary data), interviews with key informants, focus group discussions and participant observation. The research also used participatory techniques and activities for data collection during four-day training seminars conducted in each country for key project stakeholders. During these seminars, the stakeholders explored conceptually and empirically important notions of well-being, social cohesion, trust and networks, public action and political engagement as critical dimensions of social capital. The participants also exchanged their ideas about the role of education in national development through the impact of education broadly defined on human and social capital formation. The key focus of these discussions and activities was to discuss educational priorities in Central Asia critically. Interview schedules were designed and implemented for a sample of over 400 respondents in total (only ten interviews were held in Turkmenistan due to the late start of the project). The interviews were conducted with key project stakeholders represented by UNICEF senior officials, central and local government (makhalya) officials, the academic community (economists, educationalists, sociologists), as well as education service providers in each country (school principals, teachers). In addition, focus group discussions were held with parent groups and local activists. The research explored the perceptions of all stakeholders, including teachers, regarding the impact of the project on local economies and local communities through the project's human and social capital externalities.
4. For more discussion on problems in and challenges to the education systems of transition countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, see Sue Berryman, Challenges to Education Systems in Transition Economies (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2000), pp 1-133
5. Kathryn Anderson and Stephen Heyneman, 'Education and social policy in Central Asia: The next stage of transition', Social Policy and Administration, Vol 39, No 4, 2005, p 361.
6. See E. Kalyuzhnova and J. Pemberton, Economic Growth in Kazakhstan Final Country Report (Almati: The centre for Euro Asian Studies. Al Farabi Kazakh State National University, 2001)
7. World Bank, Social Development in Europe and Central Asian Region: Issues and Directions. Social Development Team. Europe and Central Asia (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 2002).
8. For analysis of labour market trends, see, for example, J. Rutskowsky, Labour Market Development During Economic Transition (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2006).
9. This drop is also related to the huge drop in birth rates (UNICEF, 2001). All the countries experienced an enitial rise in IMR during 1990-1994. See Jane Falkingham, Welfare in Transition: Trends in Poverty and Well-Being in Central Asia (London: Centre for Analysis of Social Exclusion, London School of Economics, 1999).
10. UNICEF, A Decade of Transition, Regional Monitoring Report No 8 (Baltics: CEE/CIS, Innocenti Research Centre, 2001).
11. Interview with UNDP official in Turkmenistan.
12. Government of Turkmenistan, National Programme for Education Development, 2001, Ashgabat; UNDP, Status of Women in Turkmenistan (Ashgabat: UNDP, 2000). For more discussions and statistics on preschool education and enrolment in Turkmenistan,
13. see also Education for All National Report 2000, Ashgabat and UNDP, National Human Development Report 2000, Ashgabat.
14. Government of Turkmenistan, National Programme for Education Development 2001, Ashgabat.
15. United Nations, Uzbekistan. Common Country Assessment (UN, 2003).
16. According to a respondent in Turkmenistan, the number of students in tertiary education decreased from 15,000 in 1991-1992 to 3500 in 2004, which is a decrease of over 23%. Enrolment declines in vocational education may be justified if we consider economic downturn and closure of many industries when some professions and skills became obsolete. In most transitional economies, vocational education is being reformed to meet the needs of a new economic structure.
17. EBRD, Transition Report Update: Relevant Country Assessments, 2003, pp 39-93.
18. K. Umarov, M. Olimov and A. Repkine, Explaining Growth in Tajikistan Global Research Project (Transition Economics Research Network, 2002).
19. M. C. Spechler, K. Bektemirov, K. Chepel, S and F. Suvankulor, The Uzbek Paradox: Progress without Neoliberal Reform, in, G. Ofer and R. Pomfred (Eds) The Economic Prospects of the CIS: Sources of Long Term Growth (Edward Elgar, 2004).
20. R. Mogilevsky and R. Hasanov, Explaining Growth, Global Research Project, Kyrgyz Republic, Final Report (Bishkek: GDN, 2002).
21. K. Umarov, M. Olimov and A. Repkine, Explaining Growth in Tajikistan Global Research Project (Transition Economics Research Network, 2002).
22. UNDP, Turkmenistan, National Human Development Report 2000 (UNDP, 2000).
23. Interview with UNICEF officer in Turkmenistan.
24. Ministry of Education of the Republic of Tajikistan (MOERT), Monitoring Learning Achievements in Education and Problems of Non-Attendance of Children (Dushanbe: MOERT, 2002).
25. Interview with UNICEF and OSCE officers in Turkmenistan.
26. Ibid.
27. Ibid.
28. UNICEF, At a Glance: TurkmWnistan, 2004, online at: www.unicef.org/ infobycountry/Turkmenistan.html.
29. A. Repkine, Turkmenistan Economic Autocracy and Recent Growth Performance, in G. Ofer and R. Pomfred (Eds) The Economic Propects of CIS: Sources of Long Term Growth (Edward Elgar, 2004).
30. UNDP (Human Development Report, Bisket, UNDP Office).
31. Pemberton, op cit, Ref 4.
32. In Tajikistan, education expenditures as a share of GDP were reduced from 11% in 1992 to 2.4% in 2001.
33. N. Burnett and R. Cnobloch, Public Spending on Education in the CIS-7 Countries: The Hidden Crisis, Paper presented at the Lucerne Conference of the CIS-7 Initiative, 20-22 January 2003.
34. Ibid.
35. Interview with the National Core Team (NCT) member in Tajikistan.
36. Op cit, Ref 10.
37. A. Shukhrat and T. Reed, Report on National Standards, Curricula and Textbook Provision in Tajikistan, Paper prepared for the Curriculum and Textbook Seminar, May 2004, Dushanbe.
38. Interview with the Ministry of Education official in Kazakhstan.
39. N. Burnett and R. Cnobloch, op cit, Ref 29.
40. World Bank, Uzbekistan: Living Standards Assessment (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 2002).
41. Op cit, Ref 10.
42. J. Fulkingham, Inequality and Poverty in the CIS-7, Paper presented at the Lucerne Conference of the CIS-7 Initiative, 20-22 January 2003.
43. N. Burnett and R. Cnobloch, op cit, Ref 29.
44. UNICEF, The Status of Women and Children in Uzbekistan, 2000, Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (Tashkent, Uzbekistan: UNICEF, 2001).
45. J. Fulkingham, op cit, Ref 38.
46. Interview with an educationalist in Uzbekistan.
47. Op cit, Ref 20.
48. Ministry of Education of the Republic of Tajikistan, Tajik, Republic: Monitoring Learning Achievements in Education and Problems of Non-Attendance of Children (Dushanbe Republic of Tajikistan).
49. Interview with the Ministry of Education official in Astana, Kazakhstan.
50. Resolution of the Ministerial Cabinet No 321 of 9 June 2004, 'On measures for implementing the state nation-wide programme for developing the general education for 2004-2009', Government of Turkmenistan.
51. Op cit, Ref 10.
52. Ibid.
53. Ibid, p 2.
54. The figure varies in different parts of Kazakhstan. Teachers in the developed northern parts of the country get paid more compared to the southern regions, where teachers are paid only US$20-US$50 per month. There are also urban rural variations in salary levels.
55. Op cit, Ref 20.
56. Interview with the educationalist (Professor) in Tajikistan.
57. Interview with the education methodologist in Astana, Kazakhstan.
58. Pre-schools for children aged 3-6.
59. Education for All, 2004, Kyrgyz Republic: Six Goals for 2015.
60. Government of Turkmenistan, Education for All 2000, Turkmenistan, Project National Report (Ashgabat: Government of Turkmenistan, 1999).
61. J. Dethier, Corruption in the CIS-7 Countries, Paper presented at the Lucerne Conference of the CIS-7 Initiative, 20-22 January 2003.