Techniques for predicting the lifetimes of wave-swept macroalgae: A primer on fracture mechanics and crack growth

Journal of Experimental Biology

Volumn 210, Issue 13, 2007, Pages 2213-2230

  Mach, Katharine J ^a   Nelson, Drew V ^b   Denny, Mark W ^a  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b Stanford University   (United States)

Author keywords

Biomechanics; Breakage; Fatigue; Fracture mechanics; Intertidal; Macroalgae; Seaweed

Indexed keywords

ALGA; BIOMECHANICS; ECOSYSTEM; LONGEVITY; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW;

ALGAE; BIOMECHANICS; ECOSYSTEM; LONGEVITY;

ALGAE;

EID: 34447529248     PISSN: 00220949     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1242/jeb.001560     Document Type: Review

References (123)

1. Ahagon, A., Gent, A. N., Kim, H. J. and Kumagai, Y. (1975). Fracture energy of elastomers in mode I (cleavage) and mode III (lateral shear). Rubber Chem. Technol. 48, 896-901.
2. Anderson, T. L. (2005). Fracture Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications (3rd edn). Boca Raton: CRC Press.
3. Andrews, E. H. (1968). Fracture in Polymers. New York: American Elsevier.
4. Armstrong, S. L. (1987). Mechanical properties of the tissues of the brown alga Hedophyllum sessile (C. Ag.) Setchell: variability with habitat. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 114, 143-151.
5. Atkins, A. G. and Mai, Y.-W. (1985). Elastic and Plastic Fracture: Metals, Polymers, Ceramics, Composites, Biological Materials. New York: Halsted Press.
6. Behiri, J. C. and Bonfield, W. (1984). Fracture mechanics of bone - the effects of density, specimen thickness and crack velocity on longitudinal fracture. J. Biomech. 17, 25-34.
7. Bertness, M. D. and Leonard, G. H. (1997). The role of positive interactions in communities: lessons from intertidal habitats. Ecology 78, 1976-1989.
8. Bertram, J. E. A. and Gosline, J. M. (1986). Fracture toughness design in horse hoof keratin. J. Exp. Biol. 125, 29-47.
9. Biedka, R. F., Gosline, J. M. and DeWreede, R. E. (1987). Biomechanical analysis of wave-induced mortality in the marine alga Pterygophora californica. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 36, 163-170.
10. Black, R. (1976). The effects of grazing by the limpet, Acmaea insessa, on the kelp, Egregia laevigata, in the intertidal zone. Ecology 57, 265-277.
11. Blanchette, C. A. (1997). Size and survival of intertidal plants in response to wave action: a case study with Fucus gardneri. Ecology 78, 1563-1578.
12. Boller, M. L. and Carrington, E. (2006a). In situ measurements of hydrodynamic forces imposed on Chondrus crispus Stackhouse. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 337, 159-170.
13. Boller, M. L. and Carrington, E. (2006b). The hydrodynamic effects of shape and size change during reconfiguration of a flexible macroalga. J. Exp. Biol. 209, 1894-1903.
14. Boresi, A. P. (2000). Elasticity in Engineering Mechanics (2nd edn). New York: Wiley.
15. Bose, W. W. and Landes, J. D. (2003). Fracture toughness of thin polymer films using miniature specimens. J. Test. Eval. 31, 304-310.
16. Boulding, E. G. and LaBarbera, M. (1986). Fatigue damage: repeated loading enables crabs to open larger bivalves. Biol. Bull. 171, 538-547.
17. Broek, D. (1982). Elementary Engineering Fracture Mechanics. Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
18. Broek, D. (1989). The Practical Use of Fracture Mechanics. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
19. Busfield, J. J. C., Jha, V., Liang, H., Papadopoulos, I. C. and Thomas, A. G. (2005). Prediction of fatigue crack growth using finite element analysis techniques applied to three-dimensional elastomeric components. Plast. Rubber Compos. 34, 349-356.
20. Caler, W. E. and Carter, D. R. (1989). Bone creep-fatigue damage accumulation. J. Biomech. 22, 625-635.
21. Carrington, E. (1990). Drag and dislodgment of an intertidal macroalga: consequences of morphological variation in Mastocarpus papillatus Kützing. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 139, 185-200.
22. Carrington, E., Grace, S. P. and Chopin, T. (2001). Life history phases and the biomechanical properties of the red alga Chondrus crispus (Rhodophyta). J. Phycol. 37, 699-704.
23. Chakrabarty, J. (2006). Theory of Plasticity (3rd edn). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
24. Connell, J. H. (1978). Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs. Science 199, 1302-1310.
25. Currey, J. D. (1998). Mechanical properties of vertebrate hard tissues. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. 212, 399-411.
26. Dadkhah, M. S. and Kobayashi, A. S. (1990). Further studies on the hrr field of a moving crack, an experimental analysis. Int. J. Plast. 6, 635-650.
27. Davison, I. R. and Pearson, G. A. (1996). Stress tolerance in intertidal seaweeds. J. Phycol. 32, 197-211.
28. Dayton, P. K. (1971). Competition, disturbance, and community organization: the provision and subsequent utilization of space in a rocky intertidal community. Ecol. Monogr. 41, 351-389.
29. Denny, M. W. (1988). Biology and the Mechanics of the Wave-Swept Environment. Princeton: Princeton, University Press.
30. Denny, M. W. (2006). Ocean waves, nearshore ecology, and natural selection. Aquatic Ecol. 40, 439-461.
31. Denny, M. and Gaylord, B. (2002). The mechanics of wave-swept algae. J. Exp. Biol. 205, 1355-1362.
32. Denny, M. and Wethey, D. (2001). Physical processes that generate patterns in marine communities. In Marine Community Ecology (ed. M. D. Bertness, S. D. Gaines and M. E. Hay), pp. 3-37. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates.
33. Denny, M., Brown, V., Carrington, E., Kraemer, G. and Miller, A. (1989). Fracture mechanics and the survival of wave-swept macroalgae. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 127, 211-228.
34. Denny, M. W., Gaylord, B. P. and Cowen, E. A. (1997). Flow and flexibility. II. The roles of size and shape in determining wave forces on the bull kelp Nereocystis luetkeana. J. Exp. Biol. 200, 3165-3183.
35. Denny, M. W., Miller, L. P., Stokes, M. D., Hunt, L. J. H. and Helmuth, B. S. T. (2003). Extreme water velocities: topographical amplification of wave-induced flow in the surf zone of rocky shores. Limnol. Oceanogr. 48, 1-8.
36. DeWreede, R. E., Ewanchuk, P. and Shaughnessy, F. (1992). Wounding, healing and survivorship in three kelp species. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 82, 259-266.
37. Dorfmann, A. and Ogden, R. W. (2004). A constitutive model for the Mullins effect with permanent set in particle-reinforced rubber. Int. J. Solids Struct. 41, 1855-1878.
38. Dorfmann, A., Trimmer, B. A. and Woods, W. A. (2007). A constitutive model for muscle properties in a soft-bodied arthropod. J. R. Soc. Interface 4, 257-269.
39. Dowling, N. E. and Begley, J. A. (1976). Fatigue crack growth during gross plasticity and the J-integral. In Mechanics of Crack Growth, ASTM STP 590, pp. 82-103. Philadelphia: American Society for Testing and Materials.
40. Dudgeon, S. R. and Johnson, A. S. (1992). Thick vs. thin: thallus morphology and tissue mechanics influence differential drag and dislodgment of two co-dominant seaweeds. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 165, 23-43.
41. Dudgeon, S. R., Steneck, R. S., Davison, I. R. and Vadas, R. L. (1999). Coexistence of similar species in a space-limited intertidal zone. Ecol. Monogr. 69, 331-352.
42. Farquhar, T. and Zhao, Y. (2006). Fracture mechanics and its relevance to botanical structures. Am. J. Bot. 93, 1449-1454.
43. Friedland, M. T. and Denny, M. W. (1995). Surviving hydrodynamic forces in a wave-swept environment: Consequences of morphology in the feather boa kelp, Egregia menziesii (Turner). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 190, 109-133.
44. Gaylord, B. (1999). Detailing agents of physical disturbance: wave-induced velocities and accelerations on a rocky shore. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 239, 85-124.
45. Gaylord, B. (2000). Biological implications of surf-zone flow complexity. Limnol. Oceanogr. 45, 174-188.
46. Gaylord, B. and Denny, M. W. (1997). Flow and flexibility. I. Effects of size, shape and stiffness in determining wave forces on the stipitate kelps Eisenia arborea and Pterygophora californica. J. Exp. Biol. 200, 3141-3164.
47. Gaylord, B., Blanchette, C. A. and Denny, M. W. (1994). Mechanical consequences of size in wave-swept algae. Ecol. Monogr. 64, 287-313.
48. Gosline, J., Lillie, M., Carrington, E., Guerette, P., Ortlepp, C. and Savage, K. (2002). Elastic proteins: biological roles and mechanical properties. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 357, 121-132.
49. Greensmith, H. W. (1963). Rupture of rubber. X. The change in stored energy on making a small cut in a test piece held in simple extension. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 7, 993-1002.
50. Greensmith, H. W. and Thomas, A. G. (1955). Rupture of rubber. III. Determination of tear properties. J. Polym. Sci. 18, 189-200.
51. Hale, B. (2001). Macroalgal materials: foiling fracture and fatigue from fluid forces. PhD thesis, Stanford University, USA.
52. Harley, C. D. G. and Helmuth, B. S. T. (2003). Local- and regional-scale effects of wave exposure, thermal stress, and absolute versus effective shore level on patterns of intertidal zonation. Limnol. Oceanogr. 48, 1498-1508.
53. Hawes, I. and Smith, R. (1995). Effect of current velocity on the detachment of rhalli of Ulva lactuca (Chlorophyta) in a New Zealand estuary. J. Phycol. 31, 875-880.
54. Helmuth, B. and Denny, M. W. (2003). Predicting wave exposure in the rocky intertidal zone: do bigger waves always lead to larger forces? Limnol. Oceanogr. 48, 1338-1345.
55. Hofmann, G. E. and Somero, G. N. (1995). Evidence for protein damage at environmental temperatures: seasonal changes in levels of ubiquitin conjugates and hsp70 in the intertidal mussel Mytilus trossulus. J. Exp. Biol. 198, 1509-1518.
56. Holbrook, N. M., Denny, M. W. and Koehl, M. A. R. (1991). Intertidal 'trees': consequences of aggregation on the mechanical and photosynthetic properties of sea-palms Postelsia palmaeformis Ruprecht. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 146, 39-67.
57. Joe, C. R. and Kim, B. H. (1990). A method to determine the R-curve of flexible materials using a monotonic loading of a single trouser tear specimen. Int. J. Fract. 44, 15-26.
58. Johnson, A. S. (2001). Drag, drafting, and mechanical interactions in canopies of the red alga Chondrus crispus. Biol. Bull. 201, 126-135.
59. Johnson, A. S. and Koehl, M. A. R. (1994). Maintenance of dynamic strain similarity and environmental stress factor in different flow habitats: thallus allometry and material properties of a giant kelp. J. Exp. Biol. 195, 381-410.
60. Johnson, C. R. and Mann, K. H. (1986). The importance of plant defence abilities to the structure of subtidal seaweed communities: the kelp Laminaria longicruris de la Pylaie survives grazing by the snail Lacuna vincta (Montagu) at high population densities. J. Exp. Biol. Mar. Ecol. 97, 231-267.
61. Kanninen, M. F. and Popelar, C. H. (1985). Advanced Fracture Mechanics. New York: Oxford University Press.
62. Kasapi, M. A. and Gosline, J. M. (1996). Strain-rate-dependent mechanical properties of the equine hoof wall. J. Exp. Biol. 199, 1133-1146.
63. Kasapi, M. A. and Gosline, J. M. (1997). Design complexity and fracture control in the equine hoof wall. J. Exp. Biol. 200, 1639-1659.
64. Kawahara, W. A. and Brandon, S. L. (1983). J-integral evaluation by resistance strain gauges. Eng. Fract. Mech. 18, 427-434.
65. Keaveny, T. M., Morgan, E. F., Niebur, G. L. and Yeh, O. C. (2001). Biomechanics of trabecular bone. Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng. 3, 307-333.
66. Kim, B. H., Joe, C. R. and Otterson, D. M. (1989). On the determination of fracture toughness in polymers. Polym. Test. 8, 119-130.
67. Kitzes, J. A. and Denny, M. W. (2005). Red algae respond to waves: morphological and mechanical variation in Mastocarpus papillatus along a gradient of force. Biol. Bull. 208, 114-119.
68. Koehl, M. A. R. (1984). How do benthic organisms withstand moving water? Am. Zool. 24, 57-70.
69. Koehl, M. A. R. (1986). Seaweeds in moving water: form and mechanical function. In On the Economy of Plant Form and Function (ed. T. J. Givnish), pp. 603-634. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
70. Koehl, M. A. R. and Alberte, R. S. (1988). Flow, flapping, and photosynthesis of Nereocystis luetkeana: a functional comparison of undulate and flat blade morphologies. Mar. Biol. 99, 435-444.
71. Koehl, M. A. R. and Wainwright, S. A. (1977). Mechanical adaptations of a giant kelp. Limnol. Oceanogr. 22, 1067-1071.
72. Kuhn-Spearing, L. T., Kessler, H., Chateau, E., Ballarini, R., Heuer, A. H. and Spearing, S. M. (1996). Fracture mechanisms of the Strombus gigas conch shell: implications for the design of brittle laminates. J. Mater. Sci. 31, 6583-6594.
73. LaBarbera, M. and Merz, R. A. (1992). Postmortem changes in strength of gastropod shells: evolutionary implications for hermit crabs, snails, and their mutual predators. Paleobiology 18, 367-377.
74. Lake, G. J. (1983). Aspects of fatigue and fracture of rubber. Prog. Rubber Technol. 45, 89-143.
75. Lake, G. J. (1995). Fatigue and fracture of elastomers. Rubber Chem. Technol. 68, 435-460.
76. Lee, D. J. and Donovan, J. A. (1985). Critical J-integral and tearing energies for fracture of reinforced natural rubber. Theor. Appl. Fract. Mech. 4, 137-147.
77. Leigh, E. G., Paine, R. T., Quinn, J. F. and Suchanek, T. H. (1987). Wave energy and intertidal productivity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84, 1314-1318.
78. Lindley, P. B. (1972). Energy for crack growth in model rubber components. J. Strain Anal. 7, 132-140.
79. Lowell, R. B., Markham, J. H. and Mann, K. H. (1991). Herbivore-like damage induces increased strength and toughness in a seaweed. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 243, 31-38.
80. Mach, K. J., Hale, B. B., Denny, M. W. and Nelson, D. V. (2007). Death by small forces: a fracture and fatigue analysis of wave-swept macroalgae. J. Exp. Biol. 210, 2231-2243.
81. Mai, Y. W. and Cotterell, B. (1984). The essential work of fracture for tearing of ductile metals. Int. J. Fract. 24, 229-236.
82. Mars, W. V. and Fatemi, A. (2003). Fatigue crack nucleation and growth in filled natural rubber. Fatigue Fract. Eng. Mater. Struct. 26, 779-789.
83. Martone, P. T. (2006). Size, strength and allometry of joints in the articulated coralline Calliarthron. J. Exp. Biol. 209, 1678-1689.
84. Menge, B. A. (1995). Indirect effects in marine rocky intertidal interaction webs: patterns and importance. Ecol. Monogr. 65, 21-74.
85. Moore, A. J. and Tyrer, J. R. (1994). Evaluation of fracture mechanics' parameters using electronic speckle pattern interferometry. J. Strain Anal. 29, 257-262.
86. Nelson, D. V. (1977). Review of fatigue-crack-growth prediction methods. Exp. Mech. 17, 41-49.
87. Oh, H. L. (1976). A simple method for measuring tearing energy of nicked rubber strips. In Mechanics of Crack Growth, ASTM STP 590, pp. 104-114. Philadelphia: American Society for Testing and Materials.
88. Paine, R. T. (1966). Food web complexity and species diversity. Am. Nat. 100, 65-75.
89. Paine, R. T. (1984). Ecological determinism in the competition for space: the Robert H. MacArthur award lecture. Ecology 65, 1339-1348.
90. Perez, N. (2004). Fracture Mechanics. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
91. Pook, L. P. (1983). The Role of Crack Growth in Metal Fatigue. London: The Metals Society.
92. Pratt, M. C. and Johnson, A. S. (2002). Strength, drag, and dislodgment of two competing intertidal algae from two wave exposures and four seasons. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 272, 71-101.
93. Purslow, P. P. (1983). Measurement of the fracture toughness of extensible connective tissues. J. Mater. Sci. 18, 3591-3598.
94. Purslow, P. P. (1989). Fracture of non-linear biological materials: some observations from practice relevant to theory. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 22, 854-856.
95. Read, D. T. (1983). Experimental method for direct evaluation of the J-contour integral. In Fracture Mechanics, Fourteenth Symposium, Volume II: Testing and Applications, ASTM STP 791, pp. 199-213. Philadelphia: American Society for Testing and Materials.
96. Rice, J. R. (1968a). A path independent integral and the approximate analysis of strain concentration by notches and cracks. J. Appl. Mech. 35, 379-386.
97. Rice, J. R. (1968b). Mathematical analysis in the mechanics of fracture. In Fracture, An Advanced Treatise. Vol. 2 (ed. H. Liebowitz), pp. 191-311. New York: Academic Press.
98. Rivlin, R. S. and Thomas, A. G. (1953). Rupture of rubber. I. Characteristic energy for tearing. J. Polym. Sci. 10, 291-318.
99. Sanford, R. J. (2003). Principles of Fracture Mechanics. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
100. Saxena, A. (1998). Nonlinear Fracture Mechanics for Engineers. Boston: CRC Press.
101. Schubel, P. M., Gdoutos, E. E. and Daniel, I. M. (2004). Fatigue characterization of tire rubber. Theor. Appl. Fract. Mech. 42, 149-154.
102. Seldén, R. (1995). Fracture mechanics analysis of fatigue of rubber - a review. Prog. Ser. Rubber Plast. Technol. 11, 56-83.
103. Seymour, R. J., Tegner, M. J., Dayton, P. K. and Parnell, P. E. (1989). Storm wave induced mortality of giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera, in Southern California. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 28, 277-292.
104. Shaughnessy, F. J., DeWreede, R. E. and Bell, E. C. (1996). Consequences of morphology and tissue strength to blade survivorship of two closely related Rhodophyta species. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 136, 257-266.
105. Shigley, J. E. and Mischke, C. R. (2001). Mechanical Engineering Design (6th edn). San Francisco: McGraw-Hill.
106. Smith, S. V. and Kinsey, D. W. (1976). Calcium carbonate production, coral reef growth, and sea level change. Science 194, 937-939.
107. Somero, G. N. (2002). Thermal physiology and vertical zonation of intertidal animals: optima, limits, and costs of living. Int. Comp. Biol. 42, 780-789.
108. Spatz, H.-Ch., Köhler, L. and Niklas, K. J. (1999). Mechanical behaviour of plant tissues: composite materials or structures? J. Exp. Biol. 202, 3269-3272.
109. Stillman, J. H. (2002). Causes and consequences of thermal tolerance limits in rocky intertidal porcelain crabs, genus Petrolisthes. Int. Comp. Biol. 42, 790-796.
110. Stillman, J. H. and Somero, G. N. (1996). Adaptation to temperature stress and aerial exposure in congeneric species of intertidal porcelain crabs (genus Petrolisthes): correlation of physiology, biochemistry and morphology with vertical distribution. J. Exp. Biol. 199, 1845-1855.
111. Sutton, M. A., Turner, J. L., Bruck, H. A. and Chae, T. A. (1991). Full-field representation of discretely sampled surface deformation for displacement and strain analysis. Exp. Mech. 31, 168-177.
112. Sutton, M. A., Deng, X., Liu, J. and Yang, L. (1996). Determination of elastic-plastic stresses and strains from measured surface strain data. Exp. Mech. 36, 99-112.
113. Taylor, D. and Lee, T. C. (2003). A crack growth model for the simulation of fatigue in bone. Int. J. Fatigue 25, 387-395.
114. Thomas, A. G. (1955). Rupture of rubber. II. The strain concentration at an incision. J. Polym. Sci. 18, 177-188.
115. Thomas, A. G. (1994). The development of fracture mechanics for elastomers. Rubber Chem. Technol. 67, G50-G60.
116. Tomanek, L. (2002). The heat-shock response: its variation, regulation and ecological importance in intertidal gastropods (genus Teguld). Int. Comp. Biol. 42, 797-807.
117. Tomanek, L. and Helmuth, B. (2002). Physiological ecology of rocky intertidal organisms: a synergy of concepts. Int. Comp. Biol. 42, 771-775.
118. Utter, B. D. and Denny, M. W. (1996). Wave-induced forces on the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera (Agardh): field test of a computational model. J. Exp. Biol. 199, 2645-2654.
119. pb method for ductile polymers. Polym. Test. 23, 591-598.
120. Vincent, J. F. V. (1991). Strength and fracture of grasses. J. Mater. Sci. 26, 1947-1950.
121. Vogel, S. (1984). Drag and flexibility in sessile organisms. Am. Zool. 24, 37-44.
122. Wolcott, T. G. (1973). Physiological ecology and intertidal zonation in limpets (Acmaea): a critical look at 'limiting factors'. Biol. Bull. 145, 389-422.
123. Yeoh, O. H. (2002). Relation between crack surface displacements and strain energy release rate in thin rubber sheets. Mech. Mater. 34, 459-474.