Militant Islam and the futile fight for reputation

Security Studies

Volumn 16, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 287-317

  Shannon, Vaughn P ^a   Dennis, Michael ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 34250716891     PISSN: 09636412     EISSN: 15561852     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09636410701399465     Document Type: Article

References (181)

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17. Brophy-Baermann and Conybeare, "Retaliating Against Terrorism," 197, 209.
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24. Mercer, Reputation and International Politics, 213.
25. Mercer, Reputation and International Politics.
26. Ibid.
27. Tang, "Reputation, Cult of Reputation, and International Conflict" 37-39. On anarchy's incentive for a reputation for resoluteness, see Schelling, Arms and Influence, 1966.
28. Tang, "Reputation, Cult of Reputation, and International Conflict," 50-57.
29. Daryl Press, "The Credibility of Power: Assessing Threats during the 'Appeasement' Crises of the 1930s." International Security 29, no. 3 (Winter 2004/05): 169.
30. Press, "The Credibility of Power."
31. Press, "The Credibility of Power," 140-43.
32. Robert Jervis, "Deterrence and Perception," International Security 7 (Winter 1982/93): 9.
33. Jervis, "Deterrence and Perception," 9; Mercer, Reputation and International Politics, 2-3.
34. Mercer, Reputation and International Politics, 33.
35. Elli Lieberman, "What Makes Deterrence Work," Security Studies no. 4: 833-92; Huth, "Reputations and Deterrence," 85-86.
36. Susan Fiske and Shelley Taylor, Social Cognition (New York: Random House, 1984), 22-23.
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38. Miller, "Hypotheses on Reputation," 42-43.
39. Ibid., 42-43
40. Copeland, "Do Reputations Matter?" 64.
41. For a review, see Huth, "Reputations and Deterrence," 83-86.
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43. Marilynn Brewer and Norman Miller, Intergroup Relations (Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole, 1996), 83-84.
44. Pettigrew, "The Ultimate Attribution Error" Brewer and Miller, Intergroup Relations; Mercer, Reputation and International Politics, 56-57.
45. Fritz Heider, The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1958)
46. Brewer and Miller, Intergroup Relations, 10-11.
47. Shawn Rosenberg and Gary Wolfsfeld, "International Conflict and the Problem of Attribution," Journal of Conflict Resolution 21, no. 1 (1977): 75-103, esp. 79.
48. Mercer, Reputation and International Politics, 6
49. Miller, "Hypotheses on Reputation."
50. Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition, 23
51. Heider, The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations.
52. Frederick D. Miller, Eliot R. Smith and James Uleman, "Measurement and Interpretation of Situational and Dispositional Attributions," Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 17, no. 1 (1981): 80-95.
53. Yuen Foong Khong, Analogies at War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 6-10.
54. Jervis, Perception and Mispercetion; Snyder and Deising, Conflict Among Nations; Vertzberger, The World in Their Minds; Khong, Analogies at War, 8.
55. Yaacov Vertzberger, TheWorld in Their Minds: Information Processing, Cognition, and Perceptions in Foreign Policy Decisionmaking (Stanford, Stanford University Press, 1990), 298-306
56. Khong, Analogies at War, 212
57. Jervis, Perception and Misperception, 217-26.
58. Hemmer, Which Lessons Matter?; Khong, Analogies at War, 213-15
59. Richard Nisbet and Lee Ross, Human Inference (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1980)
60. Khong, Analogies at War, 215-17.
61. Christopher Hemmer, Which Lessons Matter? American Foreign Policy Decision Making in the Middle East, 1979-1987 (Albany: SUNY Press, 2000).
62. Jervis, Perception and Misperceptions, 117.
63. Richard Ned Lebow, Between Peace and War: The Nature of International Crisis (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981).
64. Herrmann, "The Empirical Challenge of the Cognitive Revolution," 183, emphasis ours.
65. Ibid., 186.
66. Richard Cottam, Foreign Policy Motivation: A General Theory and Case Study (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1977)
67. Robert Jervis and Jack Snyder, eds., Dominoes and Bandwagons (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991)
68. Michele Alexander, Marilynn Brewer and Richard Herrmann, "Images and Affect: A Functional Analysis of Out-Group Stereotypes," Journal of Personality Social Psychology 77, no.1 (1999): 78-93.
69. Alexander, et al., "Images and Affect," 79.
70. Ibid.
71. Richard K. Herrmann and Michael Fischerkeller, "Beyond the Enemy Image and Spiral Model," International Organization 49, no. 3 (1995): 415-50, esp. 428
72. Michael Fischerkeller, "David versus Goliath: Cultural Judgments in Asymmetric Wars," Security Studies 7, no. 4 (1998): 1-43.
73. Fischerkeller, "David versus Goliath" Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 169-85.
74. Mercer, Reputation and International Politics, 221.
75. Lebow, Between Peace and War.
76. Betts, "The Soft Underbelly of American Primacy," 387.
77. John Mueller, "The Iraq Syndrome," Foreign Affairs (November/December 2005): 4.
78. Mueller, "The Iraq Syndrome," 4.
79. Huth, "Reputations and Deterrence," 78
80. Miller, "Hypotheses on Reputation," 78.
81. Huth, "Reputations and Deterrence," 78.
82. Press, "The Credibility of Power," 167.
83. Huth, "Reputations and Deterrence," 80, 96.
84. Press, "The Credibility of Power," 144, fn 17.
85. Huth, "Reputations and Deterrence," 95.
86. Douglas Streusand and Harry Tunnell, "Choosing Words Carefully: Language to Help Fight Islamic Terrorism," 23 May 2006. Unpublished manuscript. http://www.ndu.edu/csc/docs/
87. Saad Eddin Ibrahim, "Anatomy of Egypt's Militant Islamic Groups: Methodological Note and Preliminary Findings," International Journal of Middle East Studies 12 (1980): 427.
88. Garrett O'Boyle, "Theories of Justification and Political Violence," Terrorism and Political Violence 14, no. 2 (Summer 2002): 37.
89. Secondary sources with usable materials included: Anonymous, Through Our Enemies Eyes: Osama bin Laden, Radical Islam, and the Future of America (New York: Brassey's Publishing, 2003); Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon, The Age of Sacred Terror (New York: Random House Publishing, 2002)
90. Peter Bergen, Holy War Inc: Inside the Secret World of Osama bin laden (New York: Free Press, 2002)
91. Yossef Bodansky, bin Laden: The Man who Declared War on America, (Rocklin, CA: Forum, 2001)
92. Rohan Gunaratna, Inside Al Qaeda: Global Network of Terror (New York: Penguin Books, 2002)
93. Giles Kepel, Jihad: On the Trail of Political Islam (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2003)
94. Simon Reeve, The New Jackals: Ramzi Yuosef, Osama bin Laden, and the Future of Terror (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1999)
95. Barry Rubin and Judith Colp Rubin, Anti-American Terrorism and the Middle East (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002)
96. Luis S.R Vas, Osama bin Laden: King of Terror or Savior of Islam? (Delhi, India: Pustak Mahal, 2001).
97. http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/103183/831031006b.html.
98. "Reagan on the Deployment of the Marines in Lebanon," 7 February 1984, http://www.usisraelorg/jsource/History/marinedeploy.html.
99. Walter Clark and Jeffery Herbst, Learning from Somalia: The Lessons of Armed Humanitarian Intervention (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997), 169.
100. Peterson, Me Against My Brother, 146.
101. Tom Lansford and Jack Covarrubias, "Osama bin Laden, Radical Islam and the United States," in Patrick Hayden, Tom Lansford, and Robert Watson, eds., America'sWar on Terror (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Press, 2003) 3-18.
102. Bergen, Holy War Inc., 62.
103. Osama bin Laden, Declaration of War Against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Places, 23 August 1996, published in al Quds al Arabi, www.mideastweb.org.
104. Robert Pape, "A Look at the History of Suicide Attacks," NPR Morning Edition, 19 July 2005. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/ story.php?storyId=4760240.
105. Gunaratna, Inside Al Qaeda, 6; 9/11 Commission Report, http://www.faqs.org/docs/911/911Report-78.html.
106. Full Text: Bin Laden's 'letter to America', November 24, 2002. http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article6537.htm.
107. "Full Transcript of Bin Laden's Speech." Al Jazeera, November 1, 2004. http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/ 79C6AF22-98FB-4A1C-B21F-2BC36E87F61F.htm.
108. Richard Haass, Intervention: The Use of American Military Force in the Post-ColdWarWorld (Washington: Carnegie Endowment, 1994), 24.
109. John Kelly, "Lebanon, 1982-1984."
110. Osama Bin Laden, interviewed by John Miller, in Terrorism: Opposing Viewpoints, Laura Egendorf, ed. (San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1999), 125.
111. Vas, Osama bin Laden, 50.
112. Osama bin Laden, 1996, "Declaration of War against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Places." http://www.pbs.org/newshour/terrorism/international/fatwa_1996.html.
113. Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking ofWorld Order (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996), 246.
114. Benjamin and Simon, The Age of Sacred Terror, 102.
115. Bergen, Holy War Inc, 62.
116. Published in al Sharaq al Awsat, January 2002. Translated by the Foreign Broadcast Information Service.
117. Al Hijaz is the western province of Saudi Arabia where Mecca and Medina are located. See Rubin and Rubin, Anti-American Terrorism and the Middle East, 174-188.
118. Reeve, The New Jackals.
119. Transcript of "Usamah Bin-Ladin, the Destruction of the Base," Interview with Usamah Bin-Ladin, 10 June 1999. http://www.liveindia.com/ladin/interview.html.
120. Benjamin and Simon, The Age of Sacred Terror, 121.
121. Gunaratna, Inside al Qaeda: Global Network of Terror (London: Hurst and Co. Publishing, 2002), 45.
122. Gunaratna, Inside al Qaeda, 148.
123. The senior Hizb'allah commander in Somalia was a Beirut veteran who had taken part in the 1983 bombing of the Marine Corps barracks. See Bodansky, The Man Who Declared War on America, 88.
124. Osama bin Laden, interview withal Quds al Arabi, in Anonymous, Through Our Enemies Eyes, 137.
125. Osama bin Laden, interview by Tayseer Alouni, al Jazeera, 21 October 2001. Translated by the Foreign Broadcast Information Service.
126. Nick Allen, "Esquire Magazine To Republish 1998 Interview With Bin Ladin 15 October," London Press Association, 13 October 2001. FBIS Transcribed Text, FBIS-WEU-2001-1013 (WNC Insert Date: October 15, 2001).
127. Reeve, The New Jackals, 182. The casualty figures with regard to the bombing are falsified.
128. Bodansky, The Man Who Declared War on America, 199.
129. Eggleston, ed, Terrorism: Opposing Viewpoints, 127.
130. Bodansky, The Man Who Declared War on America, 89.
131. Kepel, Jihad, 318.
132. Steven Lambakis, James Kiras and Kristen Kolet, " Understanding 'Asymmetric Threats to the United States," Comparative Strategy 21 (2001): 241-77
133. National Institute for Public Policy, 249.
134. Bergen, Holy War Inc., 54.
135. Benjamin and Simon, The Age of Sacred Terror, 106; Bergen, Holy War Inc., 20.
136. Kepel, Jihad, 12-17.
137. Osama bin Laden, "Declaration of War against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Places," (1996). http://www.pbs.org/newshour/terrorism/international/fatwa_1996.html.
138. "Videotaped statement made by Saudi-born dissident Osama bin Laden and broadcast on Qatarbased al-Jazeera television on Saturday," Reuters, 3 November 2001.
139. "New Video Shows Bin Laden's Alive," Guardian, 27 December 2001. http://www.guardian.co.uk/afghanistan/story/ 0,,624975,00.html.
140. "Transcript of Bin Laden's October interview,": 5 February 2002. http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/south/02/05/ binladen.transcript/index.html.
141. Full Text of bin Laden's "letter to America," 24 November 2002. http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article6537.htm.
142. "Bin Laden Tape: Text," BBC Online, 11 February 2003. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2751019.stm.
143. "Full Transcript of Bin Laden's Speech," Al Jazeera, 1 November 2004, http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/ 79C6AF22-98FB-4A1C-B21F-2BC36E87F61F.htm.
144. "Latest Al-Zawahiri Video on Al-Jazeera, 'Reform and Expelling the Invaders from the Lands of Islam will Only be Accomplished by Fighting for the Sake of Allah."' 19 June 2005. http://memri.org/bin/ articles.cgi?Page=subjects&Area=jihad&ID=SP92505.
145. "Full Text of Bin Laden Speech," 19 January 2006. http://www.tacitus.org/story/2006/1/19/182755/304.
146. Heba Kandil, "Bin Laden Vows to Fight On," 30 June 2006. http://www.dehai.org/archives/AW_news_archive/0017.html. Accessed 30 June 2006.
147. "Latest Al-Zawahiri Video on Al-Jazeera."
148. Firouz Sedarat, "Al Qaeda Leader Says U.S. Hit Hard in Iraq," Reuters, 29 April 2006. http://news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&cid= 578&u=/nm/20060429/ts_nm/security_zawahri_dc_3.
149. "Full Text of Bin Laden Speech," 19 January 2006. http://www.tacitus.org/story/2006/1/19/182755/304.
150. All from Osama bin Laden, "Declaration of War against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Places," August 1996. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/terrorism/international/fatwa_1996.html.
151. Transcript of "Usamah Bin-Ladin, the Destruction of the Base," Interview with Usamah Bin-Ladin, 10 June 1999. http://www.liveindia.com/ ladin/interview.html.
152. Letter, 9 July 2005. http://www.fas.org/irp/news/2005/10/ letter_in_english.pdf.
153. "Transcript: Bin Laden Accuses West," Al Jazeera, 24 April 2006. http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/ F9694745-060C-419C-8523-2E093B7B807D.htm.
154. Transcript of "Usamah Bin-Ladin, the Destruction of the Base," Interview with Usamah Bin-Ladin, 10 June 1999. http://www.liveindia.com/ ladin/interview.html.
155. Kepel, Jihad, 361.
156. "Usamah Bin-Ladin, the Destruction of the Base," 1999. http://www.liveindia.com/ladin/interview.html.
157. Press, "The Credibility of Power," 142.
158. Ivan Arreguin-Toft, "How the Weak Win Wars," International Security 26, no. 1 (2001): 93-128
159. Andrew Mack, "Why Big Nations Lose Small Wars,." World Politics 27, no. 2 (1975): 175-200
160. Robert Pape, Bombing to Win: Air Power and Coercion in War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996), 4.
161. Mercer, Reputation and International Politics, 220.
162. Mercer, Reputation and International Politics, 220; Fettweis, "America's Dangerous Obsession;" Khong, Analogies at War.
163. Khong, Analogies at War, 252-53.
164. Herrmann, "The Empirical Challenge of the Cognitive Revolution," 180-81.
165. Dershowitz, Why Terrorism Works; Brian Michael Jenkins, Countering al Qaeda (Santa Monica, CA: Rand, 2002)
166. Davis and Jenkins, Deterrence and Influence in Counterterrorism.
167. For the distinction between "visceral" and "political" terror groups, see Pillar, Terrorism and U.S. Foreign Policy. On "sacred terror," see also Benjamin and Simon, The Age of Sacred Terror.
168. Davis and Jenkins, 10-15. See also Dershowitz, Why Terrorism Works, 29.
169. Bruno Frey and Simon Luechinger, Terrorism: Deterrence May Backfire (Institute for Empirical Research in Economics).
170. Mark Sedgwick, from "Al-Qaeda and the Nature of Religious Terrorism," Terrorism and Political Violence (Winter 2004), reprinted in Terrorism and Counterterrorism, edited by Russell Howard and Reid Sawyer (Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill, 2006).
171. Transcript of Usama bin Laden Videotape. http://www.state.gov/coalition/ cr/rm/2001/6874.htm.
172. Richard Clarke, Against All Enemies (New York: Free Press, 2004), 246.
173. John Mueller, "Six Rather Unusual Propositions about Terrorism," Terrorism and Political Violence 17, no. 4 (Winter 2005): 487-505.
174. Chris Fettweis, "America's Dangerous Obsession," makes this argument well.
175. Jervis, Perception and Misperception, chap. 7; Copeland, "Do Reputations Matter?" 58.
176. The Weinberger and, later, Powell Doctrine. See "Lebanon, Beirut and Grenada." http://www.ronaldreagan.com/leb.html.
177. Robert Pape, "The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism," American Political Science Review 97, no. 3 (2003)
178. Pillar, Terrorism and U.S. Foreign Policy; Frey and Luechinger, "Terrorism: Deterrence May Backfire."
179. Pape, "The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism," 356.
180. Tang, "Reputation, Cult of Reputation, and International Conflict," 56
181. and Mercer, Reputation and International Politics.