Apology in civil law: A psycho-legal perspective

Psychiatry, Psychology and Law

Volumn 14, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 5-16

  Allan, Alfred ^a  

^a EDITH COWAN UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AUSTRALIA; CIVIL DEFENSE; CIVIL RIGHTS; COURT; GOVERNMENT REGULATION; HUMAN; JUSTICE; LAW; LAW ENFORCEMENT; LEGAL ASPECT; LEGAL EVIDENCE; LEGAL LIABILITY; LEGAL PROCEDURE; MORALITY; REVIEW; SELF ACTUALIZATION;

EID: 34250006276     PISSN: 13218719     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1375/pplt.14.1.5     Document Type: Review

References (107)

1. The first legislators to introduce legislation of this nature were those of Massachusetts who inserted s. 23D in chapter 233 of the State's General Laws in 1986 to provide that 'statements, writing or benevolent gestures expressing sympathy or a general sense of benevolence ... shall be inadmissible as evidence of an admission of liability in a civil action'. Taft (2000) discusses the history of this provision. I will refer to this type of statement as a regret apology because it does not include an admission of liability.
2. In the Australian Capital Territory the relevant provisions can be found in ss. 12-14 of the Civil Law (Wrongs) Act (2002); in New South Wales in ss. 67-69 of the Civil Liability Act (2002b); in the Northern Territory in ss. 12-13 of Personal Injuries (Liabilities and Damages) Act (2003); in Queensland ss. 68-72 of the Civil Liability Act (2002a); in Tasmania in s. 7 of the Civil Liability Act (2002c); in Victoria in s.14J of the Wrongs Act(1958); in South Australia in the Civil Liability Act (1936) and in Western Australia in s. 5AF of the Civil Liability Act (2002d).
3. Jurisdictions in Canada and the United Kingdom have introduced similar provisions or are in the process of considering them. I am indebted to Professor John Dawson of the University of Otago in New Zealand who pointed out to me that protected apologies are not necessary in New Zealand because of the country's No-fault Accident Compensation Scheme.
4. For purposes of this article, I define forgiving as the cognitive and affective process by which victims overcome their violated feelings and reduce their negative motivations towards wrongdoers.This definition of forgiving is narrower than the definition used by some psychologists and lawyers. Jung (see Todd, 1985) and Taft (2006), the latter influenced by the philosopher Murphy (1988), both appear to conflate forgiving and reconciliation (i.e., a process of cooperation between a victim and a wrongdoer in an endeavour to re-establish the degree of trust between them that is required to reenter into a relationship). It is also narrower than the popular definition of Enright, Gassin and Wu (1992) which is based on the work of the philosopher Joanna North (1987). They define forgiving as the process by which victims overcome their negative affect and judgment towards wrongdoers, not by denying themselves the right to such affect and judgment, but by endeavouring to view wrongdoers positively while recognising that they are not entitled to such benevolence.
5. Worthington and Wade 1999 #11445} refers to this as a state of unforgiveness which is accurate but confusing because, as will be discussed below, a person can eliminate unforgiveness widiout forgiving.
6. It is likely that people may use one or more of these methods in combination.
7. Al-Mabuk, R.H., Enright, R.D., & Cardis, P.A. (1995). Forgiveness education with parentally love-deprived late adolescents. Journal of Moral Education, 24, 427-444.
8. Allan, A. (2007). Apology in court. In D.S. Clark (Ed.), Encyclopedia of law and society: American and global perspectives. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
9. Allan, A., & Allan, M.M. (2000). The South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission as a therapeutic tool. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 18, 459-477.
10. Allan, A., Allan, M.M., Kaminer, D., & Stein, D.J. (2006). Exploration of the association between apology and forgiveness amongst victims of human rights violations. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 24, 87-102.
11. Averill, J.R. (1983a). Studies of anger and aggression. American Psychologist, 38, 1145-1160.
12. Averill, J.R. (1983b). Studies on anger and aggression: Implications for theories of emotions. American Psychologist, 38, 1145-1160.
13. Baumeister, R.F., Stillwell, A.M., & Wotman, S.R. (1990). Victim and perpetrators account of interpersonal conflict: Autobiographical narratives about anger. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 994-1005.
14. Bell-Dolan, D., & Anderson, C.A. (1999). Attributional processes: An integration of social and clinical psychology. In R.M. Kowalski & M.R. Leary (Eds.), The social psychology of emotional and behavioral problems (pp. 37-67). Washington: American Psychological Association.
15. Bennett, M., & Dewberry, C. (1994). 'I've said I'm sorry, haven't I?' A study of the identity, implications and constraints that apologies create for their recipients. Current Psychology: Developmental, Learning Personality, Social, 13, 10-20.
16. Bennett, M., & Earwaker, D. (1994). Victim's responses to apologies: The effects of offender responsibility and offense severity. The Journal of Social Psychology, 134, 457-464.
17. Berry, J.W., & Worthington, E.L. (2001). Forgivingness, relationship quality, stress while imagining relationship events, and physical and mental health. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 48, 447-455.
18. Braithwaite, J. (1989). Crime, shame and reintegration. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
19. Cody, M.J., & McLaughlin, M.L. (1988). Accounts on trial: Oral arguments in traffic court. In C. Antaki (Ed.), Analysing everyday explanation: A casebook of methods (pp. 113-126). London: Sage.
20. Cohen, J.R. (1998-1999). Advising clients to apologize. South California Law Review, 72, 1009-1069.
21. Cohen, J.R. (2000). Apology and organisations: Exploring an example from medical practice. Fordham Urban Law Journal, 27, 1447-1482.
22. Cohen, J.R. (2002). Legislating apology: The pros and cons. Cincinnati Law Review, 70, 819-872.
23. Cooney, A.G. (2007). An exploration of factors influencing forgiveness in primary and secondary victims of violent and sexual offences. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia.
24. Darby, B.W., & Schlenker, B.R. (1982). Children's reaction to apologies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 742-753.
25. Department of Health. (2000). An organisation with a memory. London: Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
26. Enright, R.D. (1996). Counseling within the forgiveness triad: On forgiving, receiving forgiveness, and self-forgiveness. Counselling and Values, 40, 107-126.
27. Enright, R.D. (2001). Forgiveness is a choice: A step-by-step process for resolving anger and restoring hope. Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
28. Enright, R.D., Freedman, S.R., & Rique, J. (1998). The psychology of interpersonal forgiveness. In R.D. Enright & J. North (Eds.), Exploring Forgiveness (pp. 46-62). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
29. Enright, R.D., Gassin, E.A., & Wu, C. (1992). Forgiveness: A developmental view. Journal of Moral Education, 21, 99-114.
30. Enright, R.D., Rique, J., & Coyle, C.T. (2000). The Enright Forgiveness Inventory (EFI) user's manual. Madison WI: The International Forgiveness Institute.
31. Enright, R.D., Santos, M.J.D., & Al-Mabuk, R. (1989). The adolescent as forgiver. Journal of Adolescence, 12, 95-110.
32. Enright, R.D., & the Human Development Study Group. (1991). The moral development of forgiveness. In W.M. Kurtiness & J.L. Gewirtz (Eds.), Handbook of moral behavior and development (Vol. 1, pp. 123-152). Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
33. Exline, J.J., & Baumeister, R.F. (2000). Expressing forgiveness and repentance. In M.E. McCullough, K.I. Pargament & C.E. Thorsen (Eds.), Forgiveness: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 133-155). New York: Guilford Press.
34. Goffman, E. (1971). Relations in public: Microstudies of the public order. New York: Harper and Row.
35. Gold, G.J., & Weiner, B. (2000). Remorse, confession, group identity, and expectancies. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 22, 291-300.
36. Hebl, J.H., & Enright, R.D. (1993). Forgiveness as a therapeutic goal with elderly females. Psychotherapy, 30, 658-667.
37. Jones, E.E., & Davis, K.E. (1965). From acts to dispositions: The attribution process in person perception. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 219-266). New York: Academic Press.
38. Kaminer, D., Stein, D.J., Mbanga, I., & Zungu-Dirwayi, N. (2000). Forgiveness: toward an integration of theoretical models. Psychiatry, 63, 344-357.
39. Kaminer, D., Stein, D.J., Mbanga, I., & Zungu-Dirwayi, N. (2001). The truth and reconciliation commission (TRC) in South Africa: Relations to psychiatric status and forgiveness among survivors of human rights abuses. British Journal of Psychiatry, 178, 373-377.
40. Keeva, S. (1999). Does law mean never having to say you're sorry? ABA Journal, 85, 64-68.
41. Kellett, A.J. (1987). Healing angry wounds: The role of apology and mediation in disputes between physicians and patients. Missouri Journal of Dispute Resolution, 111-131.
42. Kelley, H.H., & Michela, J.L. (1980). Attribution theory and research. In M.R. Rosenzweig & L. Porter (Eds.), Annual Review of Psychology (Vol. 31, pp. 457-501). Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews.
43. Kirkup, P.A. (1993). Some religious perspectives on forgiveness and settling differences. Mediation Quarterly, 11, 79-95.
44. Korobkin, R., & Guthrie, C. (1994). Psychological barriers to litigation settlement: An experimental approach. Michigan Law Review, 93, 107-192.
45. Kraman, S., & Hamm, G. (1999). Risk management: Extreme honesty may be the best policy. Annals of Internal Medicine, 133, 963-967.
46. Kremer, J.F., & Stephens, L. (1983). Attributions and arousal as mediators of mitigation's effect on retaliation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 335-343.
47. Lazare, A. (1995). Go ahead, say you're sorry. Psychology Today, 28, 40-43, 76, 78.
48. Levi, D.L. (1997). The role of apology in mediation. New York University Law Review, 72, 1165-1210.
49. Lin, W., Mack, D., Enright, R.D., Krahn, D., & Baskin, T.W. (2004). Effects of forgiveness therapy on anger, mood and vulnerability to substance use among inpatient substance-dependent clients. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 1114-1121.
50. Lister, S. (2006, July 6). NHS 'not learning from errors'. The Times Online. Retrieved December 16, 2006, from http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/ 0,,8122-2258072,00.html
51. McCullough, M.E., Fincham, F.D., & Tsang, J.A. (2003). Forgiveness, forbearance, and time: The temporal unfolding of transgression-related interpersonal motivations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84, 540-557.
52. McCullough, M.E., Rachal, K.C., Sandage, S.J., Worthington, E.L., Brown, S.W., & Hight, T.L. (1998). Interpersonal forgiveness in close relationships II: Theoretical elaboration and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1586-1603.
53. McCullough, M.E., & Worthington, E.L. (1995). Promoting forgiveness: A comparison of two brief psychoeducational group interventions with a waiting -list control. Counselling and Values, 39, 55-68.
54. McCullough, M.E., Worthington, E.L., & Rachal, K.C. (1997). Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 321-336.
55. McLaughlin, M.L., Cody, M.J., & Rosenstein, N.E. (1983). Account sequences in conversations between strangers. Communication Monographs, 50, 102-125.
56. Mullet, E., & Girard, M. (1998). Developmental and cognitive points of view on forgivingness. In M.E. McCullough, K.I. Pargament, & C.E. Thorsen (Eds.), Forgiveness: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 111-132). New York: Guilford Press.
57. Mullet, E., Girard, M., & Bakhshi, P. (2004). Conceptualisations of forgiveness. European Psychologist, 9, 78-86.
58. Mullet, E., Houdbine, A., Laumonier, S., & Girard, M. (1998). 'Forgivingness': Factor structure in a sample of young, middle-aged, and elderly adults. European Psychologist, 3, 289-297.
59. Murphy, J. (1988). Forgiveness and resentment. In J. Murphy & J. Hampton (Eds.), Forgiveness and mercy (pp. 14-34). New York: Cambridge University Press.
60. Murray, R.J. (2002). The therapeutic use of forgiveness in healing transgenerational pain. Counseling and Values, 46, 188-198.
61. North, J. (1987). Wrongdoing and forgiveness. Philosophy, 61, 499-508.
62. Ohbuchi, K., Kameda, M., & Agarie, N. (1989). Apology as aggression control: Its role in mediating appraisal of and response to harm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 219-227.
63. Ohbuchi, K., & Sato, K. (1994). Children's reaction to mitigating accounts: Apologies, excuses, and intentionality of harm. Journal of Social Psychology, 134, 11.
64. Orenstein, A. (1998-1999). Apology expected: Incorporating a feminist analysis into evidence policy where you would least expect it. Southwestern University Law Review, 28, 221-279.
65. Paleari, F.G., Regalia, C., & Fincham, F.D. (2005). Marital quality, forgiveness, empathy and rumination: A longitudinal Analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 368-378.
66. Pattison, E.M. (1965). On the failure to forgive or to be forgiven. Psychotherapy, 31, 106-115.
67. Petrucci, C.J. (2002). Apology in the criminal justice setting: evidence for including apology as an additional component in the legal system. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 20, 337-362.
68. Pietrini, P., Guazzelli, M., Basso, G., Jaffe, K., & Grafman, J. (2000). Neural correlates of imaginal aggressive behavior assessed by positron emission tomography in healthy subjects. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1772-1781.
69. Radin, M.J. (1993). Compensation and commensurability. Duke Law Journal, 43, 56-86.
70. Regher, C., & Gutheil, T. (2002). Apology, justice and trauma recovery. Journal of American Academy of Psychiatry and Law, 30.
71. Rehm, P.H., & Beatty, D.R. (1996). Legal consequences of apologizing. Journal of Dispute Resolution, 115-130.
72. Robbennolt, J.K. (2003). Apologies and legal settlement: An empirical examination. Michigan Law Review, 102, 460-517.
73. Robbennolt, J.K. (2006). Apologies and settlement levers Journal of Empirical Legal Studies, 3, 333-373.
74. Rowe, J.O., Halling, S., Davies, E., Leifer, M., Powers, D., & van Bronkhorst, J. (1989). The psychology of forgiving another: A dialogal research approach. In R. Valle & S. Halling (Eds.), Existential-phenomenological perspectives in psychology: Exploring the breath of human experience (pp. 233-244). New York: Plenum.
75. Saunders, M. (1997). Don't be afraid to apologise. The International Journal of the MDU, 11, 17.
76. Scher, S.J., & Darley, J.M. (1997). How effective are the things people say to apologize? Effects of the realization of the apology speech act. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 26, 127-139.
77. Schlenker, B.R., & Darby, B.W. (1981). The use of apologies in social predicaments. Social Psychology Quarterly, 44, 271-278.
78. Schmitt, M., Gollwitzer, M., Förster, N., & Montada, L. (2004). Effects of objective and subjective account components on forgiving. The Journal of Social Psychology, 144, 465-486.
79. Schönbach, P. (1990). Account episodes: The management of escalation of conflict. New York: Cambridge University Press.
80. Shuman, D.W. (2000). The role of apology in tort law. Judicature, 83, 180-189.
81. Skene, L., & Luntz, H. (2005). Effects of tort law reform on medical liability. Australian Law Journal, 79, 345-363.
82. Slocum, D., Allan, A., & Allan, M.M. (2006, June). The relationship between apology, sorriness and forgiving: The findings of a qualitative and quantitative study. Paper presented at the Third International Conference on Therapeutic Jurisprudence, Perth, Western Australia.
83. Smedslund, J. (1991). The psychologic of forgiving. Scandinavian Journal of psychology, 32, 164-176.
84. Sugimuto, N. (1997). A Japan-U.S. comparison of apology styles. Communication Research, 24, 349-370.
85. Sumner, J. (2006). Examining support for the affirmation, affect and action model of apology and true sorriness Unpublished honours thesis, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia.
86. Taft, L. (2000). Apology subverted: The commodification of apology. Yale Law Journal, 109, 1135-1160.
87. Taft, L. (2005a). Apology and medical mistake: Opportunity or foil? Annals of Health Law 14, 55-98.
88. Taft, L. (2005b). Apology within a moral dialectic: A reply to professor Robbennolt Michigan Law Review, 103, 1010-1018.
89. Taft, L. (2006). On bended knee (With fingers crossed). DePaul Law Review, 55 601-615.
90. Takaku, S., Weiner, B., & Ohbuchi, T. (2001). A cross-cultural examination of the effect of apology and perspective taking on forgiveness. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 21, 144-166.
91. Tavuchis, N. (1991). Mea Culpa: A sociology of apology and reconciliation. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
92. Todd, E. (1985). The value of confession and forgiveness to Jung. Journal of Religion and Health, 24, 39-48.
93. Vines, P. (2005a). Apologies in the civil liability context. Australian Civil Liability, 2, 6.
94. Vines, P. (2005b). Apologising to avoid liability: Cynical civility or practical morality? Sydney Law Review, 27, 483-505.
95. Wade, N.G., & Worthington, E.L. (2003). Overcoming interpersonal offenses: Is forgiveness the only way to deal with unforgiveness? Journal of Counseling and Development, 81, 343-353.
96. Wagatsuma, H., & Rosett, A. (1986). The implications of apology: Law and culture in Japan and the United States. Law and Society Review, 20, 461-498.
97. Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychological Review, 92, 548-573.
98. Weiner, B. (1995). Judgement of responsibility: A foundation for a theory of social conduct. New York: Guilford Press.
99. Weiner, B., Graham, S., Peter, O., & Zmuidinas, M. (1991). Public confessions and forgiveness. Journal of Personality, 59, 218-312.
100. Wexler, D.B. (1991). An introduction to therapeutic jurisprudence. In D.B. Wexler & B.J. Winick (Eds.), Essays in Therapeutic Jurisprudence (pp. 17-38). Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
101. Witvliet, C.V.O., Ludwig, T.E., & Vander Laan, K.L. (2001). Granting forgiveness or harbouring grudges: Implications for emotions, physiology, and health. Psychological Science, 12, 117-123.
102. Witvliet, C.V.O., Worthington, E.L., & Wade, N.G. (2002, October). Victims' heart rate and facial EMG responses to receiving an apology and restitution. Paper presented at the Annual meeting of the Society for Psychophysiological Research, Washington, D.C.
103. Worthington, E.L. (1998). The pyramid model of forgiveness. In E.L. Worthington (Ed.), Dimensions of forgiveness: Psychological research and theological perspectives (pp. 107-138). Philadelphia, PA: Templeton Foundation Press.
104. Worthington, E.L. (2001). Unforgiveness, forgiveness, and reconciliation in societies. In R.G. Helmick & R.L. Petersen (Eds.), Forgiveness and reconciliation: Religion, public policy, and conflict transformation (pp. 161-182). Philadelphia, PA: Templeton Foundation Press.
105. Worthington, E.L., & Wade, N.G. (1999). The psychology of unforgiveness and forgiveness and implications for clinical practice. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 18, 385-417.
106. Zechmeister, J.S., Garcia, S., Romero, C., & Vas, S.N. (2004). Don't apologise unless you mean it: A laboratory investigation of forgiveness and retaliation. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 532-564.
107. Zechmeister, J.S., & Romero, C. (2002). Victim and offender accounts of interpersonal conflict: Autobiographical accounts of forgiveness and unforgiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 675-686.