Kawasaki disease: Diagnosis, management and cardiac sequelae

Expert Review of Cardiovascular Therapy

Volumn 5, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 553-561

  Wood, Louise ^a   Tulloh, Robert ^a  

^a BRISTOL ROYAL HOSPITAL FOR CHILDREN   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Aspirin; Coronary aneurysms; Endothelial dysfunction; Immunoglobulin; Myocardial blood flow; Myocardial ischemia; Vasculitis

Indexed keywords

ABCIXIMAB; ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; CYCLOSPORIN; DIPYRIDAMOLE; FIBRINOGEN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; INFLIXIMAB; METHOTREXATE; NITRIC OXIDE; TACROLIMUS; TECHNETIUM 99M; THYMOCYTE ANTIBODY; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR;

ANEURYSM; ARTERITIS; ARTERY THROMBOSIS; BLOOD VESSEL CATHETERIZATION; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CHILDHOOD DISEASE; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; CORONARY ARTERY BYPASS GRAFT; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; CORONARY ARTERY OBSTRUCTION; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURE; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DRUG CONTRAINDICATION; DRUG DOSE COMPARISON; DRUG DOSE REDUCTION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG MEGADOSE; ENDOCARDITIS; GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY; HEART MUSCLE BLOOD FLOW; HEART MUSCLE ISCHEMIA; HUMAN; LABORATORY TEST; MUCOCUTANEOUS LYMPH NODE SYNDROME; MYOCARDITIS; PERICARDITIS; PLASMAPHERESIS; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; REVIEW; SCINTIGRAPHY; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; SUDDEN DEATH; TWO DIMENSIONAL ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; UNITED KINGDOM; VASCULITIS;

ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; CORONARY CIRCULATION; HEART DISEASES; HUMANS; INFANT; MUCOCUTANEOUS LYMPH NODE SYNDROME; MYOCARDIAL ISCHEMIA;

EID: 34249300464     PISSN: 14779072     EISSN: 17448344     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/14779072.5.3.553     Document Type: Review

References (93)

1. Kawasaki T. [Acute febrile mucocutaneous syndrome with lymphoid involvement with specific desquamation of the fingers and toes in children]. Arerugi 16(3), 178-222 (1967).
2. Ayusawa M, Sonobe T, Uemura S et al. Revision of diagnostic guidelines for Kawasaki disease (the 5th revised edition). Pediatr. Int. 47(2), 232-234 (2005).
3. Shulman ST, De Inocencio J, Hirsch R. Kawasaki disease. Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 42(5), 1205-1222 (1995).
4. Burns JC, Kushner HI, Bastian JF et al. Kawasaki disease: a brief history. Pediatrics 106(2), E27 (2000).
5. Levin M, Tizard EJ, Dillon MJ. Kawasaki disease: recent advances. Arch. Dis. Child 66(2), 1369-1372 (1991).
6. Nakamura Y, Yanagawa H, Ojima T, Kawasaki T, Kato H. Cardiac sequelae of Kawasaki disease among recurrent cases. Arch. Dis. Child. 78(2), 163-165 (1998).
7. Cimaz R, Falcini F. An update on Kawasaki disease. Autoimmun. Rev. 2(5), 258-263 (2003).
8. Fujita Y, Nakamura Y, Sakata K et al. Kawasaki disease in families. Pediatrics 84(4), 666-669 (1989).
9. Nishimura S, Zaitsu M, Hara. M et al. A polymorphism in the promoter of the CD14 gene (CD14/-159) is associated with the development ofcoronary artery lesions in patients with Kawasaki disease. J. Pediatr. 143(3), 357-362 (2003).
10. Brogan PA, Shah V, Bagga A, Klein N, Dillon MJ. T cell Vβ repertoires in childhood vasculitides. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 131(3), 517-527 (2003).
11. Han RK, Sinclair B, Newman A et al. Recognition and management of Kawasaki disease. CMAJ 162(6), 807-812 (2000).
12. Burgner D, Harnden A. Kawasaki disease: What is the epidemiology telling us about the etiology? Int. J. Infect. Dis. 9(4), 185-194 (2005).
13. Esper F, Shapiro ED, Weibel C et al. Association between a novel human coronavirus and Kawasaki disease. J. Infect. Dis. 191(4), 499-502 (2005).
14. Gupta-Malhotra M, Rao PS. Current perspectives on Kawasaki disease. Indian J. Pediatr. 72(7), 621-629 (2005).
15. Belay ED, Erdman DD, Anderson LJ et al. Kawasaki disease and human coronavirus. J. Infect. Dis. 192(2), 352-353; author reply 353 (2005).
16. Ebihara T, Endo R, Ma X, Ishiguro N, Kikuta H. Lack of association between New Haven coronavirus and Kawasaki disease. J. Infect. Dis. 192(2), 351-352; author reply 353 (2005).
17. Brogan PA, Bose A, Burgner D et al. Kawasaki disease: an evidence based approach to diagnosis, treatment, and proposals for future research. Arch. Dis. Child 86(4), 286-290 (2002).
18. Tizard JE. Recognition and management of Kawasaki disease. Curr. Paediatr. 8, 97-101 (1999).
19. Burns JC, Mason WH, Glode MP et al. Clinical and epidemiologic characteristics of patients referred for evaluation of possible Kawasaki disease. United States Multicenter Kawasaki Disease Study Group. J. Pediatr. 118(5), 680-686 (1991).
20. Sundel RP. Update on the treatment of Kawasaki disease in childhood. Curr. Rheumatol. Rep. 4(6), 474-482 (2002).
21. Lee KY, Han JW, Hong JH et al. Inflammatory processes in Kawasaki disease reach their peak at the sixth day of fever onset: laboratory profiles according to duration of fever. J. Korean Med. Sci. 19(4), 501-504 (2004).
22. Lin MT, Tsao LY, Cheng ML et al. Absence of hypercoagulability in acute Kawasaki disease. Pediatr. Int. 47(2), 126-131 (2005).
23. Newburger JW, Takahashi M, Gerber MA et al. Diagnosis, treatment, and long-term management of Kawasaki disease: a statement for health professionals from the Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, American Heart Association. Pediatrics 114(6), 1708-1733 (2004).
24. Fukushige J, Takahashi N, Ueda Y, Ueda K. Incidence and clinical features of incomplete Kawasaki disease. Acta Paediatr. 83(10), 1057-1060 (1994).
25. Joffe A, Kabani A, Jadavji T. Atypical and complicated Kawasaki disease in infants. Do we need criteria? West J. Med. 162(4), 322-327(1995).
26. Terai M, Shulman ST. Prevalence of coronary artery abnormalities in Kawasaki disease is highly dependent on γ globulin dose but independent of salicylatc dose. J. Pediatr. 131(6), 888-893 (1997).
27. Durongpisitkul K, Gururaj VJ, Park JM, Martin CF. The prevention of coronary artery aneurysm in Kawasaki disease: a meta-analysis on the efficacy of aspirin and immunoglobulin treatment. Pediatrics 96(6), 1057-1061 (1995).
28. Freeman AF, Shulman ST. Recent developments in Kawasaki disease. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 14(3), 357-361 (2001).
29. Gedalia A. Kawasaki disease: an update. Curr. Rheumatol. Rep. 4(1), 25-29 (2002).
30. Hashino K, Ishii M, Iemura M, Akagi T, Kato H. Re-treatment for immune globulin-resistant Kawasaki disease: a comparative study of additional immune globulin and steroid pulse therapy. Pediatr. Int. 43(3), 211-217 (2001).
31. Newburger JW. Treatment of Kawasaki disease: corticosteroids revisited. J. Pediatr. 135(4), 411-413 (1999).
32. Lee MS, An SY, Jang GC, Kim DS. A case of intravenous immunoglobulin-resistant Kawasaki disease treated with methotrexate. Yonsei Med. J. 43(4), 527-532 (2002).
33. Thomas-Golbanov C, Sridharan S. Novel therapies in vasculitis. Expert Opin. Investig. Drugs 10(7), 1279-1289 (2001).
34. Etheridge SP, Tani LY, Minich LL, Revenaugh JR. Platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor blockade therapy for large coronary aneurysms and thrombi in Kawasaki disease. Cathet. Cardiovasc. Diagn. 45(3), 264-268 (1998).
35. Williams RV, Wilke VM, Tani LY, Minich LL. Does abciximab enhance regression of coronary aneurysms resulting from Kawasaki disease? Pediatrics 109(1), E4 (2002).
36. Imagawa T, Mori M, Miyarnae T et al. Plasma exchange for refractory Kawasaki disease. Eur. J. Pediatr. 163(4-5), 263-264 (2004).
37. Ahn SY, Jang GC, Shin JS, Shin KM, Kim DS. Tumor necrosis factor-α levels and promoter polymorphism in patients with Kawasaki disease in Korea. Yonsei Med. J. 44(6), 1021-1026 (2003).
38. Bacon PA. Endothelial cell dysfunction in systemic vasculitis: new developments and therapeutic prospects. Curr. Opin. Rheumatol. 17(1), 49-55 (2005).
39. Carlton-Conway D, Ahluwalia R, Henry L et al. Behaviour sequelae following acute Kawasaki disease. BMC Pediatr. 50(1), 14 (2005).
40. Hirose K, Nakamura Y, Yanagawa H. Cardiac sequelae of Kawasaki disease in Japan over 10 years. Acta Paediatr. Jpn 37(6), 667-671 (1995).
41. Lu CP, Lee WJ, Ho MM, Hwang KC. Risk factors of coronary arterial aneurysm in Kawasaki disease. Zhonghua Min Guo Xiao Er Ke Yi Xue Hui Za Zhi 34(3), 173-180 (1993).
42. Honkanen VE, McCrindle BW, Laxer RM et al. Clinical relevance of the risk factors for coronary artery inflammation in Kawasaki disease. Pediatr. Cardiol. 24(2), 122-126 (2003).
43. Zhang T, Yanagawa H, Oki I, Nakamura Y. Factors relating to the cardiac sequelae of Kawasaki disease one month after initial onset. Acta Paediatr. 91(5), 517-520 (2002).
44. Tulloh RM, Wood LE. Coronary artery changes in patients with Kawasaki disease. Acta Paediatr. Suppl. 93(446), 75-79 (2004).
45. Suzuki A, Miyagawa-Tomita S, Komatsu K et al. Immunohistochemical study of apparently intact coronary artery in a child after Kawasaki disease. Pediatr Int. 46(5), 590-596 (2004).
46. Wilson N, Heaton P, Calder L et al. Kawasaki disease with severe cardiac sequelae: lessons from recent New Zealand experience. J. Paediatr. Child Health. 40(9-10), 524-529 (2004).
47. Nakamura Y, Oki I, Tanihara S, Ojima T, Yanagawa H. Cardiac sequelae in recurrent cases of Kawasaki disease: a comparison between the initial episode of the disease and a recurrence in the same patients. Pediatrics 102(6), E66 (1998).
48. Nakamura Y, Yashiro M, Oki I et al. Giant coronary aneurysms due to Kawasaki disease: a case-control study. Pediatr. Int. 44(3), 254-258 (2002).
49. Fukushige J, Takahashi N, Ueda K et al. Long-term outcome of coronary abnormalities in patients after Kawasaki disease. Pediatr. Cardiol. 17(2), 71-76 (1996).
50. Vanlieferinghen PH, Brunet F, Beaufrere AM, Borderon C, Dechelotte P. [Sudden unexpected death in an infant due to a ruptured coronary aneurysm revealing Kawasaki disease]. Arch. Pediatr. 9(12), 1248-1251 (2002).
51. Hunsaker DM, Hunsaker JC 3rd, Adams KC, Noonan JA, Ackermann DM. Fatal Kawasaki disease due to coronary aneurysm rupture with massive cardiac tamponade. J. Ky. Med. Assoc. 101(6), 233-238 (2003).
52. Takahashi K. Oharaseki T, Naoe S, Wakayama M, Yokouchi Y. Neutrophilic involvement in the damage to coronary arteries in acute stage of Kawasaki disease. Pediatr. Int. 47(3), 305-310 (2005).
53. Terai M, Yasukawa K, Honda T et al. Peripheral blood eosinophilia and eosinophil accumulation in coronary microvessels in acute Kawasaki disease. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 21(8), 777-781 (2002).
54. Samada K, Igarashi H, Shiraishi H, Hatake K, Momoi MY. Increased serum granulocyte colony-stimulating factor correlates with coronary artery dilatation in Kawasaki disease. Eur. J. Pediatr. 161(10), 538-541 (2002).
55. Gavin PJ, Crawford SE, Shulman ST, Garcia FL, Rowley AH. Systemic arterial expression of matrix metalloproteinases 2 and 9 in acute Kawasaki disease. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc Biol. 23(4), 576-581 (2003).
56. Rowley AH. The etiology of Kawasaki disease: superantigen or conventional antigen? Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 18(1), 69-70 (1999).
57. 2(15)O. Coron. Artery Dis. 6(7), 555-559 (1995).
58. Ikemoto Y. Nitric oxide in Kawasaki disease. J. Pediatr. 142(5), 594-595; author reply 595-596 (2003).
59. Adewuya O, Irie Y, Bian K, Onigu-Otite E, Murad F. Mechanism of vasculitis and aneurysms in Kawasaki disease: role of nitric oxide. Nitric Oxide 8(1), 15-25 (2003).
60. Khajoee V, Kariyazono H, Ohno T et al. Inducible and endothelial constitutive nitric oxide synthase gene polymorphisms in Kawasaki disease. Pediatr. Int. 45(2), 130-134 (2003).
61. Suzuki A, Miyagawa-Tomita S, Komatsu K et al. Active remodeling of the coronary arterial lesions in the late phase of Kawasaki disease: immunohistochemical study. Circulation 101 (25), 2935-2941 (2000).
62. Okubo M, Ino T, Takahashi K et al. Age dependency of stiffness of the abdominal aorta and the mechanical properties of the aorta in Kawasaki disease in children. Pediatr. Cardiol. 22(3), 198-203 (2001).
63. Tsuda E, Kamiya T. Ono Y, Kimura K, Echigo S. Dilated coronary arterial lesions in the late period after Kawasaki disease. Heart 91(2), 177-182 (2005).
64. Kato H, Ichinose E, Yoshioka F et al. Fate of coronary aneurysms in Kawasaki disease: serial coronary angiography and long-term follow-up study. Am. J. Cardiol. 49(7), 1758-1766 (1982).
65. Newburger JW. Kawasaki Disease. Curr. Treat. Options Cardiovasc. Med. 2(3), 227-236 (2000).
66. Kato H, Sugimura T, Akagi T et al. Long-term consequences of Kawasaki disease. A 10- to 21 year follow-up study of 594 patients. Circulation 94(6), 1379-1385 (1996).
67. Kato H, Inoue O, Kawasaki T et al. Adult coronary artery disease probably due to childhood Kawasaki disease. Lancet 340(8828), 1127-1129 (1992).
68. Miyagawa M, Mochizuki T, Murase K et al. Prognostic value of dipyridamole-thallium myocardial scintigraphy in patients with Kawasaki disease. Circulation 98(10), 990-996 (1998).
69. Iemura M, Ishii M, Sugimura T, Akagi T, Kato H. Long term consequences of regressed coronary aneurysms after Kawasaki disease: vascular wall morphology and function. Heart 83(3), 307-311 (2000).
70. Zilberman MV, Goya G, Witt SA, Glascock B, Kimball TR. Dobutamine stress echocardiography in the evaluation of young patients with Kawasaki disease. Pediatr. Cardiol. 24(4), 338-343 (2003).
71. Hauser M, Bengel F, Kuehn A et al. Myocardial blood flow and coronary flow reserve in children with 'normal' epicardial coronary arteries after the onset of Kawasaki disease assessed by positron emission tomography. Pediatr. Cardiol. 25(2), 108-112 (2004).
72. Furuyama H, Odagawa Y, Katoh C et al. Assessment of coronary function in children with a history of Kawasaki disease using (15)O-water positron emission tomography. Circulation 105(24), 2878-2884 (2002).
73. Furuyama H, Odagawa Y, Katoh C et al. Altered myocardial flow reserve and endothelial function late after Kawasaki disease. J. Pediatr. 142(2), 149-154 (2003).
74. Sato Y, Kato M, Inoue F et al. Detection of coronary artery aneurysms, stenoses and occlusions by multislice spiral computed tomography in adolescents with Kawasaki disease. Circ. J. 67(5), 427-430 (2003).
75. Fukuda T, Ishibashi M, Yokoyama T et al. Myocardial ischemia in Kawasaki disease: evaluation with dipyridamole stress technetium 99m tetrofosmin scintigraphy. J. Nucl. Cardiol. 9(6), 632-637 (2002).
76. Fu YC, Liu FY, Tsai SC, Hwang B, Chi CS. Poor agreement between dipyridamolestress technetium-99m-tetrofosmin myocardial perfusion single photon emission computed tomography and two-dimensional echocardiography in Kawasaki disease. Int. J. Cardiol. 90(1), 57-61 (2003).
77. Hiraishi S, Hirota H, Horiguchi Y et al. Transthoracic Doppler assessment of coronary flow velocity reserve in children with Kawasaki disease: comparison with coronary angiography and thallium-201 imaging. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 40(10), 1816-1824 (2002).
78. Noto N, Karasawa K, Kanamaru. H et al. Non-invasive measurement of coronary flow reserve in children with Kawasaki disease. Heart 87(6), 559-565 (2002).
79. Harada K, Yasuoka K, Tamura M, Toyono M. Coronary flow reserve assessment by Doppler echocardiography in children with and without congenital heart defect: comparison with invasive technique. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 15(10 Pt 2), 1121-1126 (2002).
80. Mavrogeni S, Papadopoulos G, Douskou M et al. Magnetic resonance angiography is equivalent to x-ray coronary angiography for the evaluation of coronary arteries in Kawasaki disease. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 43(4), 649-652 (2004).
81. Greil GF, Stuber M, Botnar RM et al. Coronary magnetic resonance angiography in adolescents and young adults with Kawasaki disease. Circulation 105(8), 908-911 (2002).
82. Danias PG, Stuber M, Botnar RM et al. Coronary MR angiography clinical applications and potential for imaging coronary artery disease. Magn. Reson. Imaging Clin. N. Am. 11(1), 81-99 (2003).
83. Mavrogeni S, Papadopoulos G, Douskou M et al. Magnetic resonance angiography, function and viability evaluation in patients with Kawasaki disease. J. Cardiovasc. Magn. Reson. 8, 493-498 (2006).
84. Schratz LM, Meyer RA, Schwartz DC. Serial intracoronary ultrasound in children: feasibility, reproducibility, limitations, and safety. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 15(8), 782-790 (2002).
85. Dahdah NS, Jaeggi E, Fournier A. Electrocardiographic depolarization and repolarization: long-term after Kawasaki disease. Pediatr. Cardiol. 23(5), 513-517 (2002).
86. Murakami H, Hirokami M, Hanawa N et al. Acetylcholine-induced coronary spasm with a history of Kawasaki disease: case report. Circ. J. 67(3), 273-274 (2003).
87. Onouchi Z, Hamaoka K, Sakata K et al. Long-term changes in coronary artery aneurysms in patients with Kawasaki disease: comparison of therapeutic regimens. Circ. J. 69(3), 265-272 (2005).
88. Levy DM, Silverman ED, Massicotte MP, McCrindle BW, Yeung RS. Longterm outcomes in patients with giant aneurysms secondary to Kawasaki disease. J. Rheumatol. 32(5), 928-934 (2005).
89. Ishii M, Ueno T, Ikeda H et al. Sequential follow-up results of catheter intervention for coronary artery lesions after Kawasaki disease: quantitative coronary artery angiography and intravascular ultrasound imaging study. Circulation 105(25), 3004-3010 (2002).
90. Yamauchi H, Ochi M, Fujii M et al. Optimal time of surgical treatment for Kawasaki coronary artery disease. J. Nippon. Med. Sch. 71(4), 279-286 (2004).
91. Furukawa S, Matsubara T, Umezawa Y et al. Pentoxifylline and intravenous γ globulin combination therapy for acute Kawasaki disease. Eur. J. Pediatr. 153(9), 663-667 (1994).
92. Shen CT, Wang NK. Antioxidants may mitigate the deterioration of coronary arteritis in patients with Kawasaki disease unresponsive to high-dose intravenous γ-globulin. Pediatr. Cardiol. 22(5), 419-422 (2001).
93. 2 synthase-type 2 in Kawasaki disease. J. Infect. Dis. 181(3), 1101-1109 (2000).