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Volumn 93, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 58-83

"Acting as freemen": Rhetoric, race, and reform in the debate over colonization in freedom's journal, 1827-1828

(1)  Bacon, Jacqueline a  

a NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

American colonization society; Constitutive rhetoric; Public sphere; Race; Whiteness

Indexed keywords


EID: 34248550856     PISSN: 00335630     EISSN: 14795779     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00335630701326860     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (16)

References (130)
  • 1
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    • I use the term reformers (and reform) here and elsewhere not to mean that the ACS's members or goals were progressive or compassionate but rather to connote that their plans were offered as ostensible remedies to perceived societal problems.
    • I use the term "reformers" (and "reform") here and elsewhere not to mean that the ACS's members or goals were progressive or compassionate but rather to connote that their plans were offered as ostensible remedies to perceived societal problems.
  • 3
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    • In subsequent citations, Freedom's Journal will be abbreviated to FJ.
    • In subsequent citations, Freedom's Journal will be abbreviated to FJ.
  • 4
    • 0034258134 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Textual clues indicate that Wilberforce and Subscriber were white men. Wilberforce identifies himself as an associate of Professor Samuel Miller of Princeton Seminary, refers to Russwurm's coloured brethren, and uses they and their to designate free people of color. Subscriber - probably also a man, since few white women were involved in colonization efforts (Bruce Dorsey, A Gendered History of African Colonization in the Antebellum United States Journal of Social History 34 [2000]: 80) - similarly speaks of your race and your people.
    • Textual clues indicate that "Wilberforce" and "Subscriber" were white men. "Wilberforce" identifies himself as an associate of Professor Samuel Miller of Princeton Seminary, refers to Russwurm's "coloured brethren," and uses "they" and "their" to designate free people of color. "Subscriber" - probably also a man, since few white women were involved in colonization efforts (Bruce Dorsey, "A Gendered History of African Colonization in the Antebellum United States" Journal of Social History 34 [2000]: 80) - similarly speaks of "your race" and "your people."
  • 5
    • 34248595368 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The articles and letters published in Freedom's Journal by opponents of colonization considered in this study were, for the most part, written by African Americans, some whose identity is known (the editors, James Forten, William Watkins, and Richard Allen). A Free Coloured Virginian is clearly a black author, as is Investigator, who refers to all my brethren and uses we and our in reference to people of color. Clarkson appears to have been white (he refers to this people whom we originally stole and uses their and them to refer to African Americans).
    • The articles and letters published in Freedom's Journal by opponents of colonization considered in this study were, for the most part, written by African Americans, some whose identity is known (the editors, James Forten, William Watkins, and Richard Allen). "A Free Coloured Virginian" is clearly a black author, as is "Investigator," who refers to "all my brethren" and uses "we" and "our" in reference to people of color. "Clarkson" appears to have been white (he refers to "this people whom we originally stole" and uses "their" and "them" to refer to African Americans).
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    • Colonization Society
    • September 14
    • Samuel E. Cornish and John B. Russwurm, "Colonization Society," FJ, September 14, 1827, 107;
    • (1827) FJ , pp. 107
    • Cornish, S.E.1    Russwurm, J.B.2
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    • Junior Editor [John B. Russwurm], Wilberforce, FJ, September 7, 1827, 103.
    • Junior Editor [John B. Russwurm], "Wilberforce," FJ, September 7, 1827, 103.
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    • To Our Patrons
    • March 16
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    • (1827) FJ , pp. 1
    • Cornish, S.E.1    Russwurm, J.B.2
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    • This brief history of Freedom's Journal is based on Jacqueline Bacon, The History of Freedom's Journal: A Study in Empowerment and Community, Journal of African American History 88 Winter 2003, 1-20
    • This brief history of Freedom's Journal is based on Jacqueline Bacon, "The History of Freedom's Journal: A Study in Empowerment and Community," Journal of African American History 88 (Winter 2003): 1-20,
  • 24
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    • Freedom's Journal
    • Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, which provides a more complete account
    • and Jacqueline Bacon, Freedom's Journal: The First African-American Newspaper (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2007), 37-69, which provides a more complete account.
    • (2007) The First African-American Newspaper , pp. 37-69
    • Bacon, J.1
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  • 28
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    • Ella Forbes, African-American Resistance to Colonization, Journal of Black Studies 21 (1990): 217-23. It is important to distinguish between white-sponsored plans for colonization (the focus of the debate considered in this analysis) and the self-directed emigration of free African Americans to Africa (or other regions). In most cases, those who advocated the latter did not explicitly favor the ACS's plans, but instead focused on ventures that would allow African Americans a more active role. The distinction was crucial; see V. P. Franklin, Black Self-Determination: A Cultural History of the Faith of the Fathers (Westport, CT: Lawrence Hill & Company, 1984), 89-90;
    • Ella Forbes, "African-American Resistance to Colonization," Journal of Black Studies 21 (1990): 217-23. It is important to distinguish between white-sponsored plans for colonization (the focus of the debate considered in this analysis) and the self-directed emigration of free African Americans to Africa (or other regions). In most cases, those who advocated the latter did not explicitly favor the ACS's plans, but instead focused on ventures that would allow African Americans a more active role. The distinction was crucial; see V. P. Franklin, Black Self-Determination: A Cultural History of the Faith of the Fathers (Westport, CT: Lawrence Hill & Company, 1984), 89-90;
  • 29
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    • Saillant, Circular, 486; Glaude, Exodus, 113-17 .
    • Saillant, "Circular," 486; Glaude, Exodus, 113-17 .
  • 30
    • 34248511970 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Early in 1829, Russwurm - at that time sole editor of the newspaper -publicly announced that he had reversed his position on colonization; he emigrated to Liberia later that year. This was, of course, a significant shift with various ramifications for him and for Freedom's Journal. However, the transformation of Russwurm's views takes nothing away from the general ideological thrust of his and others' contributions on the anti-colonization side of the debate in 1827 and 1828. For a complete discussion of Russwurm's altered views and its effect on the newspaper, see Bacon, History, 12-15; Bacon, Freedom's Journal, 54-64.
    • Early in 1829, Russwurm - at that time sole editor of the newspaper -publicly announced that he had reversed his position on colonization; he emigrated to Liberia later that year. This was, of course, a significant shift with various ramifications for him and for Freedom's Journal. However, the transformation of Russwurm's views takes nothing away from the general ideological thrust of his and others' contributions on the anti-colonization side of the debate in 1827 and 1828. For a complete discussion of Russwurm's altered views and its effect on the newspaper, see Bacon, "History," 12-15; Bacon, Freedom's Journal, 54-64.
  • 31
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    • Wilberforce [letter to editors], FJ, September 7, 1827, 101-02.
    • "Wilberforce" [letter to editors], FJ, September 7, 1827, 101-02.
  • 32
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    • The letter to which Wilberforce refers is Russwurm's To the Senior Editor-No. III, F], August 17,1827, 91.
    • The letter to which "Wilberforce" refers is Russwurm's "To the Senior Editor-No. III," F], August 17,1827, 91.
  • 33
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    • American Colonization Society. No. III
    • September 28
    • John H. Kennedy, "American Colonization Society. No. III," FJ, September 28, 1827, 114;
    • (1827) FJ , pp. 114
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  • 34
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    • J[ohn] H. K[ennedy], American Colonization Society. No. I, FJ, September 14, 1827, 106.
    • J[ohn] H. K[ennedy], "American Colonization Society. No. I," FJ, September 14, 1827, 106.
  • 35
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    • Wilberforce [letter], 101; Kennedy, American Colonization Society. No. I, 106.
    • "Wilberforce" [letter], 101; Kennedy, "American Colonization Society. No. I," 106.
  • 36
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    • Thomas K. Nakayama and Robert L. Krizek, Whiteness: A Strategic Rhetoric, Quarterly Journal of Speech 81 (1995): 299; Daniel, Rituals, 73.
    • Thomas K. Nakayama and Robert L. Krizek, "Whiteness: A Strategic Rhetoric," Quarterly Journal of Speech 81 (1995): 299; Daniel, "Rituals," 73.
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    • Narrative and Counternarrative in Print-Mediated Coverage of Milwaukee Alderman Michael McGee
    • See also
    • See also Steven R. Goldzwig and Patricia A. Sullivan, "Narrative and Counternarrative in Print-Mediated Coverage of Milwaukee Alderman Michael McGee," Quarterly Journal of Speech 86 (2000): 222, 224;
    • (2000) Quarterly Journal of Speech , vol.86 , Issue.222 , pp. 224
    • Goldzwig, S.R.1    Sullivan, P.A.2
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    • Resisting Whiteness' Rhetorical Silence
    • Carrie Crenshaw, "Resisting Whiteness' Rhetorical Silence," Western Journal of Communication 61 (1997): 253;
    • (1997) Western Journal of Communication , vol.61 , pp. 253
    • Crenshaw, C.1
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    • Reading the Reparations Debate
    • Jacqueline Bacon, "Reading the Reparations Debate," Quarterly Journal of Speech 89 (2003): 186-89.
    • (2003) Quarterly Journal of Speech , vol.89 , pp. 186-189
    • Bacon, J.1
  • 40
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    • Investigator, Colonization Society. No. I, FJ, September 7, 1827, 102.
    • "Investigator," "Colonization Society. No. I," FJ, September 7, 1827, 102.
  • 41
    • 34248582147 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Samuel E. Cornish and John B. Russwurm, letter to editors of the New-York Observer, FJ, September 21, 1827, 110. Although the letter to the editors of the New-York Observer was published in Freedom's Journal in the first issue that Russwurm edited on his own, it appears to have been written by both Cornish and Russwurm; it refers to Freedom's Journal's editors and distinguishes the junior Editor.
    • Samuel E. Cornish and John B. Russwurm, letter to editors of the New-York Observer, FJ, September 21, 1827, 110. Although the letter to the editors of the New-York Observer was published in Freedom's Journal in the first issue that Russwurm edited on his own, it appears to have been written by both Cornish and Russwurm; it refers to Freedom's Journal's "editors" and distinguishes the "junior Editor."
  • 42
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    • A Coloured Baltimorean [William Watkins], Colonization Society [letter to editors], FJ, July 6, 1827, 66;
    • A Coloured Baltimorean [William Watkins], "Colonization Society" [letter to editors], FJ, July 6, 1827, 66;
  • 43
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    • A Coloured Baltimorean [William Watkins], American Colonization Society, FJ, July 11, 1828, 123.
    • A Coloured Baltimorean [William Watkins], "American Colonization Society," FJ, July 11, 1828, 123.
  • 44
    • 34248546906 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bettye J. Gardner identifies Watkins as the author of the first letter; Watkins used this pseudonym in letters to the Genius of Universal Emancipation and the Liberator as well (Opposition to Emigration, A Selected Letter of William Watkins [The Coloured Baltimorean], Journal of Negro History 67 [1982]: 155-58). Watkins's 1828 letter was originally published in the Genius of Universal Emancipation.
    • Bettye J. Gardner identifies Watkins as the author of the first letter; Watkins used this pseudonym in letters to the Genius of Universal Emancipation and the Liberator as well ("Opposition to Emigration, A Selected Letter of William Watkins [The Coloured Baltimorean]," Journal of Negro History 67 [1982]: 155-58). Watkins's 1828 letter was originally published in the Genius of Universal Emancipation.
  • 45
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    • Investigator, Colonization Society [letter to editors], FJ, August 31, 1827, 98.
    • "Investigator," "Colonization Society" [letter to editors], FJ, August 31, 1827, 98.
  • 46
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    • A Coloured Baltimorean [Watkins
    • A Coloured Baltimorean [Watkins], "Colonization Society."
    • Colonization Society
  • 47
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    • Samuel Miller, From the N. Y. Observer [letter to editors of the New-York Observer], FJ, September 21, 1827;
    • Samuel Miller, "From the N. Y. Observer" [letter to editors of the New-York Observer], FJ, September 21, 1827;
  • 48
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    • Cornish and Russwurm, letter to editors of the New-York Observer.
    • Cornish and Russwurm, letter to editors of the New-York Observer.
  • 51
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    • Reinventing the Master's Tools: Nineteenth-Century African-American Literary Societies of Philadelphia and Rhetorical Education
    • See also, Fall
    • See also Jacqueline Bacon and Glen McClish, "Reinventing the Master's Tools: Nineteenth-Century African-American Literary Societies of Philadelphia and Rhetorical Education," Rhetoric Society Quarterly 30, no. 4 (Fall 2000): 19-47;
    • (2000) Rhetoric Society Quarterly , vol.30 , Issue.4 , pp. 19-47
    • Bacon, J.1    McClish, G.2
  • 52
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    • The Banneker Literary Institute of Philadelphia: African American Intellectual Activism before the War of the Slaveholders' Rebellion
    • Tony Martin, "The Banneker Literary Institute of Philadelphia: African American Intellectual Activism before the War of the Slaveholders' Rebellion," Journal of African American History 87 (2002): 303-22;
    • (2002) Journal of African American History , vol.87 , pp. 303-322
    • Martin, T.1
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    • Timothy Patrick McCarthy, 'To Plead Our Own Cause': Black Print Culture and the Origins of American Abolitionism, in Prophets of Protest: Reconsidering the History of American Abolitionism, ed. Timothy Patrick McCarthy and John Stauffer (New York: New Press, 2006), 116-18.
    • Timothy Patrick McCarthy, '"To Plead Our Own Cause': Black Print Culture and the Origins of American Abolitionism," in Prophets of Protest: Reconsidering the History of American Abolitionism, ed. Timothy Patrick McCarthy and John Stauffer (New York: New Press, 2006), 116-18.
  • 55
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    • There are also clearly gendered implications to the exclusive definition of freemen favored by many whites and the efforts of African Americans to claim the term and to link freedom and black masculinity, although an exploration is beyond the scope of this paper. Readers interested in antebellum construction of white and black masculinity should see James Oliver Horton, Freedom's Yoke: Gender Conventions Among Antebellum Free Blacks, Feminist Studies 12 1986, 54-57;
    • There are also clearly gendered implications to the exclusive definition of freemen favored by many whites and the efforts of African Americans to claim the term and to link freedom and black masculinity, although an exploration is beyond the scope of this paper. Readers interested in antebellum construction of white and black masculinity should see James Oliver Horton, "Freedom's Yoke: Gender Conventions Among Antebellum Free Blacks," Feminist Studies 12 (1986): 54-57;
  • 60
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    • J[ohn] H. K[ennedy], American Colonization Society. No. II, FJ, September 21,1827,10910.
    • J[ohn] H. K[ennedy], "American Colonization Society. No. II," FJ, September 21,1827,10910.
  • 61
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    • Lipari, Fearful, 91; Crenshaw, Resisting, 255.
    • Lipari, "Fearful," 91; Crenshaw, "Resisting," 255.
  • 62
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    • A Room Without a View: Social Distance and the Structuring of Privileged Identity
    • See also, ed. Cynthia Levine-Rasky Albany: State University of New York Press
    • See also Michael Alan Sacks and Marika Lindholm, "A Room Without a View: Social Distance and the Structuring of Privileged Identity," in Working Through Whiteness: International Perspectives, ed. Cynthia Levine-Rasky (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), 143;
    • (2002) Working Through Whiteness: International Perspectives , pp. 143
    • Alan Sacks, M.1    Lindholm, M.2
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    • Strategic Social Identities and Judgments: A Murder in Appalachia
    • Dreama G. Moon and Thomas K. Nakayama, "Strategic Social Identities and Judgments: A Murder in Appalachia," Howard Journal of Communications 16 (2005): 103.
    • (2005) Howard Journal of Communications , vol.16 , pp. 103
    • Moon, D.G.1    Nakayama, T.K.2
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    • A Subscriber, Colonization Society [letter to editors], FJ, August 24, 1827, 94.
    • "A Subscriber," "Colonization Society" [letter to editors], FJ, August 24, 1827, 94.
  • 67
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    • Clarkson, American Colonization Society. Conclusion, FJ, November 30, 1827, 150.
    • "Clarkson," "American Colonization Society. Conclusion," FJ, November 30, 1827, 150.
  • 68
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    • Investigator, Colonization Society, 98.
    • "Investigator," "Colonization Society," 98.
  • 69
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    • Investigator, Colonization Society. No. II, FJ, October 5, 1827, 118.
    • "Investigator," "Colonization Society. No. II," FJ, October 5, 1827, 118.
  • 72
    • 84975253759 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Resisting
    • Crenshaw
    • Nakayama and Krizek, "Whiteness," 300-1; Crenshaw, "Resisting," 258-59.
    • Nakayama1    Krizek2
  • 73
    • 34248544839 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Coloured Baltimorean [Watkins], Colonization Society, 66. For further discussion of African-American rhetors' employment and refashioning of resonant American texts and concepts, see Bacon, Humblest, 84-108, 209-15;
    • A Coloured Baltimorean [Watkins], "Colonization Society," 66. For further discussion of African-American rhetors' employment and refashioning of resonant American texts and concepts, see Bacon, Humblest, 84-108, 209-15;
  • 74
    • 34248514805 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jacqueline Bacon and Glen McClish, Descendents of Africa, Sons of '76: Exploring Early African-American Rhetoric, Rhetoric Society Quarterly 36 (2006): 9-12, 17-19. The use of Francis Scott Key's famous words is, in this context, also highly ironic; Key was a founding member of the ACS.
    • Jacqueline Bacon and Glen McClish, "Descendents of Africa, Sons of '76: Exploring Early African-American Rhetoric," Rhetoric Society Quarterly 36 (2006): 9-12, 17-19. The use of Francis Scott Key's famous words is, in this context, also highly ironic; Key was a founding member of the ACS.
  • 75
    • 34248548406 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • From the Baltimore Morning Chronicle, FJ, September 14, 1827, 107.
    • "From the Baltimore Morning Chronicle," FJ, September 14, 1827, 107.
  • 76
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    • Investigator, Colonization Society. No I, 102.
    • "Investigator," "Colonization Society. No I," 102.
  • 77
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    • A Man of Colour [James Forten], letter to editors, FJ, May 18, 1827, 38. A decade after its publication in Freedom's Journal, Cornish reprinted the letter from A Man of Colour in the Colored American, May 13, 1837, specifying that it was written by Forten (I am indebted to Julie Winch's A Gentleman of Color. The Life of James Forten [New York: Oxford University Press, 2002], 205, for bringing this identification to my attention).
    • A Man of Colour [James Forten], letter to editors, FJ, May 18, 1827, 38. A decade after its publication in Freedom's Journal, Cornish reprinted the letter from "A Man of Colour" in the Colored American, May 13, 1837, specifying that it was written by Forten (I am indebted to Julie Winch's A Gentleman of Color. The Life of James Forten [New York: Oxford University Press, 2002], 205, for bringing this identification to my attention).
  • 78
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    • Clarkson, American Colonization Society. No. IV, FJ, November 16, 1827, 141.
    • "Clarkson," "American Colonization Society. No. IV," FJ, November 16, 1827, 141.
  • 79
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    • Letter, No. V. To Rev. Samuel E. Cornish
    • November 2
    • John B. Russwurm, "Letter, No. V. To Rev. Samuel E. Cornish," FJ, November 2, 1827, 135.
    • (1827) FJ , pp. 135
    • Russwurm, J.B.1
  • 80
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    • Clarkson, American Colonization Society. No. IV, 141.
    • "Clarkson," "American Colonization Society. No. IV," 141.
  • 81
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    • Clarkson's mocking imitation of the obtuse language of colonizationists is a form of signifying, a powerful African-American rhetorical strategy that uses the language of the dominant in order to undermine it; see Claudia Mitchell-Kernan, Signifying, in Mother Wit From the Laughing Barrel: Readings in the Interpretation of Afro-American Folklore, ed. Alan Dundes (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice, 1973), 310-28;
    • "Clarkson"'s mocking imitation of the obtuse language of colonizationists is a form of signifying, a powerful African-American rhetorical strategy that uses the language of the dominant in order to undermine it; see Claudia Mitchell-Kernan, "Signifying," in Mother Wit From the Laughing Barrel: Readings in the Interpretation of Afro-American Folklore, ed. Alan Dundes (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice, 1973), 310-28;
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    • Jacqueline Bacon, "Brighter Prospects? Ms. Bush and White America's Rhetoric of Limited Alternatives," Black Commentator, September 22, 2005, http://www.blackcommentator.com/151/151_bacon_barbara_bush.html (accessed September 4, 2006);
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    • Daniel, "Rituals," 73; Bacon, "Reading," 186-89; Vorris Nunley, "From the Harbor to Da Academic Hood: Hush Harbors and an African American Rhetorical Tradition," in African American Rhetoric(s): Interdisciplinary Perspectives, ed. Elaine B. Richardson and Ronald L. Jackson II (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2004), 231;
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    • See, for example, Bacon, Humblest, 21-50; Castiglia, Abolition's;
    • See, for example, Bacon, Humblest, 21-50; Castiglia, "Abolition's";
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    • Ryan, Grammar, Melish, Disowning;
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    • ed. Jill Bergman and Debra Bernardi Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press
    • Terry D. Novak, "Frances Harper's Poverty Relief Mission in the African American Community," in Our Sisters' Keepers: Nineteenth-Century Benevolence Literature by Women, ed. Jill Bergman and Debra Bernardi (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2005), 217.
    • (2005) Our Sisters' Keepers: Nineteenth-Century Benevolence Literature by Women , pp. 217
    • Novak, T.D.1
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    • Rituals
    • Williams
    • Daniel, "Rituals"; Williams, Rooster's Egg, 28-40;
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    • Daniel1
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    • Mark Lawrence McPhail, The Rhetoric of Racism Revisited: Reparations or Separation? (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2002);
    • Mark Lawrence McPhail, The Rhetoric of Racism Revisited: Reparations or Separation? (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2002);
  • 130
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    • Bacon, "Reading," 171-95; Bacon, "Brighter Prospects?"


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.