A gendered history of African colonization in the antebellum United States

Journal of Social History

Volumn 34, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 76-103

  Dorsey, Bruce ^a  

^a Department of History ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034258134     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.2000.0101     Document Type: Review

References (247)

1. Joseph Blake to R. R. Gurley, A.C.S., March 9, and May 13, 1835, American Colonization Society Papers, Library of Congress, Reel 153. Blake never received the redress he petitioned for, and left Liberia for Sierra Leone in 1837. "Roll of Emigrants That Have Been Sent to the Colony of Liberia, Western Africa, by the American Colonization Society and Its Auxiliaries, to September 1843," U.S. Congress, Senate Documents, 28th Congress, 2nd Sess., 1844, IX, pp. 152, 156; Tom W. Shick, Behold the Promised Land: A History of Afro-American Settler Society in Nineteenth-Century Liberia, (Baltimore, 1980), 38; James Wesley Smith, Sojourners in Search of Freedom: The Settlement of Liberia by Black Americans (Lanham, MD, 1987), ch. 7.
2. Joseph Blake to R. R. Gurley, A.C.S., March 9, and May 13, 1835, American Colonization Society Papers, Library of Congress, Reel 153. Blake never received the redress he petitioned for, and left Liberia for Sierra Leone in 1837. "Roll of Emigrants That Have Been Sent to the Colony of Liberia, Western Africa, by the American Colonization Society and Its Auxiliaries, to September 1843," U.S. Congress, Senate Documents, 28th Congress, 2nd Sess., 1844, IX, pp. 152, 156; Tom W. Shick, Behold the Promised Land: A History of Afro-American Settler Society in Nineteenth-Century Liberia, (Baltimore, 1980), 38; James Wesley Smith, Sojourners in Search of Freedom: The Settlement of Liberia by Black Americans (Lanham, MD, 1987), ch. 7.
3. Joseph Blake to R. R. Gurley, A.C.S., March 9, and May 13, 1835, American Colonization Society Papers, Library of Congress, Reel 153. Blake never received the redress he petitioned for, and left Liberia for Sierra Leone in 1837. "Roll of Emigrants That Have Been Sent to the Colony of Liberia, Western Africa, by the American Colonization Society and Its Auxiliaries, to September 1843," U.S. Congress, Senate Documents, 28th Congress, 2nd Sess., 1844, IX, pp. 152, 156; Tom W. Shick, Behold the Promised Land: A History of Afro-American Settler Society in Nineteenth-Century Liberia, (Baltimore, 1980), 38; James Wesley Smith, Sojourners in Search of Freedom: The Settlement of Liberia by Black Americans (Lanham, MD, 1987), ch. 7.
4. Perhaps no subject has received more attention from antebellum women's historians for the past thirty years than the connections between women's abolitionism and the origins of feminism and woman's rights. Still, general histories of antislavery continually fail to integrate women abolitionists, except to emphasize women as a problem ("the woman question" that produced an abolitionist schism), or to mention briefly the woman's rights movement. A thorough engagement with gender remains rare in surveys of abolitionism. With the exception of Herbert Aptheker, none of the general histories of abolitionism since 1984 (all written by men) engages the issues of women or gender aside from a passing reference to "woman's rights." Even the most recent survey of antebellum reform, Robert H. Abzug, Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination (New York, 1994) frames his final two chapters around the twin issues of the "Woman Question" and the struggle for woman's rights. No comprehensive work on gender and colonization yet exists. On women abolitionists, see Alma Lutz, Crusade for Freedom: Women of the Antislavery Movement (Boston, 1968); Blanche Classman Hersh, The Slavery of Sex: Feminist-Abolitionists in America (Urbana, 1978); Aileen S. Kraditor, Means and Ends in American Abolitionism (New York, 1967), chapter 3; Gerda Lerner, The Grimké Sisters from South Carolina (New York, 1967); Nancy A. Hewitt, Women's Activism and Social Change (Ithaca, 1984); Jean Fagan Yellin, Women and Sisters: The Antislavery Feminists in American Culture (New Haven, 1989); Jean Pagan Yellin and John Van Horne, eds., The Abolitionist Sisterhood: Women's Political Culture in Antebellum America (Ithaca, 1994); especially Nancy A. Hewitt, "On Their Own Terms: A Historiographical Essay," 23-30; Karen Sanchez-Eppler, Touching Liberty: Abolitionism, Feminism, and the Politics of the Body (Berkeley, 1993); Julie Roy Jeffrey, The Great Silent Army of Abolitionism: Ordinary Women in the Antislavery Movement (Chapel Hill, 1998); and Shirley J. Yee, Black Women Abolitionists: A Study in Activism, 1828-1860 (Knoxville, TN, 1992).
5. Perhaps no subject has received more attention from antebellum women's historians for the past thirty years than the connections between women's abolitionism and the origins of feminism and woman's rights. Still, general histories of antislavery continually fail to integrate women abolitionists, except to emphasize women as a problem ("the woman question" that produced an abolitionist schism), or to mention briefly the woman's rights movement. A thorough engagement with gender remains rare in surveys of abolitionism. With the exception of Herbert Aptheker, none of the general histories of abolitionism since 1984 (all written by men) engages the issues of women or gender aside from a passing reference to "woman's rights." Even the most recent survey of antebellum reform, Robert H. Abzug, Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination (New York, 1994) frames his final two chapters around the twin issues of the "Woman Question" and the struggle for woman's rights. No comprehensive work on gender and colonization yet exists. On women abolitionists, see Alma Lutz, Crusade for Freedom: Women of the Antislavery Movement (Boston, 1968); Blanche Classman Hersh, The Slavery of Sex: Feminist-Abolitionists in America (Urbana, 1978); Aileen S. Kraditor, Means and Ends in American Abolitionism (New York, 1967), chapter 3; Gerda Lerner, The Grimké Sisters from South Carolina (New York, 1967); Nancy A. Hewitt, Women's Activism and Social Change (Ithaca, 1984); Jean Fagan Yellin, Women and Sisters: The Antislavery Feminists in American Culture (New Haven, 1989); Jean Pagan Yellin and John Van Horne, eds., The Abolitionist Sisterhood: Women's Political Culture in Antebellum America (Ithaca, 1994); especially Nancy A. Hewitt, "On Their Own Terms: A Historiographical Essay," 23-30; Karen Sanchez-Eppler, Touching Liberty: Abolitionism, Feminism, and the Politics of the Body (Berkeley, 1993); Julie Roy Jeffrey, The Great Silent Army of Abolitionism: Ordinary Women in the Antislavery Movement (Chapel Hill, 1998); and Shirley J. Yee, Black Women Abolitionists: A Study in Activism, 1828-1860 (Knoxville, TN, 1992).
6. Perhaps no subject has received more attention from antebellum women's historians for the past thirty years than the connections between women's abolitionism and the origins of feminism and woman's rights. Still, general histories of antislavery continually fail to integrate women abolitionists, except to emphasize women as a problem ("the woman question" that produced an abolitionist schism), or to mention briefly the woman's rights movement. A thorough engagement with gender remains rare in surveys of abolitionism. With the exception of Herbert Aptheker, none of the general histories of abolitionism since 1984 (all written by men) engages the issues of women or gender aside from a passing reference to "woman's rights." Even the most recent survey of antebellum reform, Robert H. Abzug, Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination (New York, 1994) frames his final two chapters around the twin issues of the "Woman Question" and the struggle for woman's rights. No comprehensive work on gender and colonization yet exists. On women abolitionists, see Alma Lutz, Crusade for Freedom: Women of the Antislavery Movement (Boston, 1968); Blanche Classman Hersh, The Slavery of Sex: Feminist-Abolitionists in America (Urbana, 1978); Aileen S. Kraditor, Means and Ends in American Abolitionism (New York, 1967), chapter 3; Gerda Lerner, The Grimké Sisters from South Carolina (New York, 1967); Nancy A. Hewitt, Women's Activism and Social Change (Ithaca, 1984); Jean Fagan Yellin, Women and Sisters: The Antislavery Feminists in American Culture (New Haven, 1989); Jean Pagan Yellin and John Van Horne, eds., The Abolitionist Sisterhood: Women's Political Culture in Antebellum America (Ithaca, 1994); especially Nancy A. Hewitt, "On Their Own Terms: A Historiographical Essay," 23-30; Karen Sanchez-Eppler, Touching Liberty: Abolitionism, Feminism, and the Politics of the Body (Berkeley, 1993); Julie Roy Jeffrey, The Great Silent Army of Abolitionism: Ordinary Women in the Antislavery Movement (Chapel Hill, 1998); and Shirley J. Yee, Black Women Abolitionists: A Study in Activism, 1828-1860 (Knoxville, TN, 1992).
7. Perhaps no subject has received more attention from antebellum women's historians for the past thirty years than the connections between women's abolitionism and the origins of feminism and woman's rights. Still, general histories of antislavery continually fail to integrate women abolitionists, except to emphasize women as a problem ("the woman question" that produced an abolitionist schism), or to mention briefly the woman's rights movement. A thorough engagement with gender remains rare in surveys of abolitionism. With the exception of Herbert Aptheker, none of the general histories of abolitionism since 1984 (all written by men) engages the issues of women or gender aside from a passing reference to "woman's rights." Even the most recent survey of antebellum reform, Robert H. Abzug, Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination (New York, 1994) frames his final two chapters around the twin issues of the "Woman Question" and the struggle for woman's rights. No comprehensive work on gender and colonization yet exists. On women abolitionists, see Alma Lutz, Crusade for Freedom: Women of the Antislavery Movement (Boston, 1968); Blanche Classman Hersh, The Slavery of Sex: Feminist-Abolitionists in America (Urbana, 1978); Aileen S. Kraditor, Means and Ends in American Abolitionism (New York, 1967), chapter 3; Gerda Lerner, The Grimké Sisters from South Carolina (New York, 1967); Nancy A. Hewitt, Women's Activism and Social Change (Ithaca, 1984); Jean Fagan Yellin, Women and Sisters: The Antislavery Feminists in American Culture (New Haven, 1989); Jean Pagan Yellin and John Van Horne, eds., The Abolitionist Sisterhood: Women's Political Culture in Antebellum America (Ithaca, 1994); especially Nancy A. Hewitt, "On Their Own Terms: A Historiographical Essay," 23-30; Karen Sanchez-Eppler, Touching Liberty: Abolitionism, Feminism, and the Politics of the Body (Berkeley, 1993); Julie Roy Jeffrey, The Great Silent Army of Abolitionism: Ordinary Women in the Antislavery Movement (Chapel Hill, 1998); and Shirley J. Yee, Black Women Abolitionists: A Study in Activism, 1828-1860 (Knoxville, TN, 1992).
8. Perhaps no subject has received more attention from antebellum women's historians for the past thirty years than the connections between women's abolitionism and the origins of feminism and woman's rights. Still, general histories of antislavery continually fail to integrate women abolitionists, except to emphasize women as a problem ("the woman question" that produced an abolitionist schism), or to mention briefly the woman's rights movement. A thorough engagement with gender remains rare in surveys of abolitionism. With the exception of Herbert Aptheker, none of the general histories of abolitionism since 1984 (all written by men) engages the issues of women or gender aside from a passing reference to "woman's rights." Even the most recent survey of antebellum reform, Robert H. Abzug, Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination (New York, 1994) frames his final two chapters around the twin issues of the "Woman Question" and the struggle for woman's rights. No comprehensive work on gender and colonization yet exists. On women abolitionists, see Alma Lutz, Crusade for Freedom: Women of the Antislavery Movement (Boston, 1968); Blanche Classman Hersh, The Slavery of Sex: Feminist-Abolitionists in America (Urbana, 1978); Aileen S. Kraditor, Means and Ends in American Abolitionism (New York, 1967), chapter 3; Gerda Lerner, The Grimké Sisters from South Carolina (New York, 1967); Nancy A. Hewitt, Women's Activism and Social Change (Ithaca, 1984); Jean Fagan Yellin, Women and Sisters: The Antislavery Feminists in American Culture (New Haven, 1989); Jean Pagan Yellin and John Van Horne, eds., The Abolitionist Sisterhood: Women's Political Culture in Antebellum America (Ithaca, 1994); especially Nancy A. Hewitt, "On Their Own Terms: A Historiographical Essay," 23-30; Karen Sanchez-Eppler, Touching Liberty: Abolitionism, Feminism, and the Politics of the Body (Berkeley, 1993); Julie Roy Jeffrey, The Great Silent Army of Abolitionism: Ordinary Women in the Antislavery Movement (Chapel Hill, 1998); and Shirley J. Yee, Black Women Abolitionists: A Study in Activism, 1828-1860 (Knoxville, TN, 1992).
9. Perhaps no subject has received more attention from antebellum women's historians for the past thirty years than the connections between women's abolitionism and the origins of feminism and woman's rights. Still, general histories of antislavery continually fail to integrate women abolitionists, except to emphasize women as a problem ("the woman question" that produced an abolitionist schism), or to mention briefly the woman's rights movement. A thorough engagement with gender remains rare in surveys of abolitionism. With the exception of Herbert Aptheker, none of the general histories of abolitionism since 1984 (all written by men) engages the issues of women or gender aside from a passing reference to "woman's rights." Even the most recent survey of antebellum reform, Robert H. Abzug, Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination (New York, 1994) frames his final two chapters around the twin issues of the "Woman Question" and the struggle for woman's rights. No comprehensive work on gender and colonization yet exists. On women abolitionists, see Alma Lutz, Crusade for Freedom: Women of the Antislavery Movement (Boston, 1968); Blanche Classman Hersh, The Slavery of Sex: Feminist-Abolitionists in America (Urbana, 1978); Aileen S. Kraditor, Means and Ends in American Abolitionism (New York, 1967), chapter 3; Gerda Lerner, The Grimké Sisters from South Carolina (New York, 1967); Nancy A. Hewitt, Women's Activism and Social Change (Ithaca, 1984); Jean Fagan Yellin, Women and Sisters: The Antislavery Feminists in American Culture (New Haven, 1989); Jean Pagan Yellin and John Van Horne, eds., The Abolitionist Sisterhood: Women's Political Culture in Antebellum America (Ithaca, 1994); especially Nancy A. Hewitt, "On Their Own Terms: A Historiographical Essay," 23-30; Karen Sanchez-Eppler, Touching Liberty: Abolitionism, Feminism, and the Politics of the Body (Berkeley, 1993); Julie Roy Jeffrey, The Great Silent Army of Abolitionism: Ordinary Women in the Antislavery Movement (Chapel Hill, 1998); and Shirley J. Yee, Black Women Abolitionists: A Study in Activism, 1828-1860 (Knoxville, TN, 1992).
10. Perhaps no subject has received more attention from antebellum women's historians for the past thirty years than the connections between women's abolitionism and the origins of feminism and woman's rights. Still, general histories of antislavery continually fail to integrate women abolitionists, except to emphasize women as a problem ("the woman question" that produced an abolitionist schism), or to mention briefly the woman's rights movement. A thorough engagement with gender remains rare in surveys of abolitionism. With the exception of Herbert Aptheker, none of the general histories of abolitionism since 1984 (all written by men) engages the issues of women or gender aside from a passing reference to "woman's rights." Even the most recent survey of antebellum reform, Robert H. Abzug, Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination (New York, 1994) frames his final two chapters around the twin issues of the "Woman Question" and the struggle for woman's rights. No comprehensive work on gender and colonization yet exists. On women abolitionists, see Alma Lutz, Crusade for Freedom: Women of the Antislavery Movement (Boston, 1968); Blanche Classman Hersh, The Slavery of Sex: Feminist-Abolitionists in America (Urbana, 1978); Aileen S. Kraditor, Means and Ends in American Abolitionism (New York, 1967), chapter 3; Gerda Lerner, The Grimké Sisters from South Carolina (New York, 1967); Nancy A. Hewitt, Women's Activism and Social Change (Ithaca, 1984); Jean Fagan Yellin, Women and Sisters: The Antislavery Feminists in American Culture (New Haven, 1989); Jean Pagan Yellin and John Van Horne, eds., The Abolitionist Sisterhood: Women's Political Culture in Antebellum America (Ithaca, 1994); especially Nancy A. Hewitt, "On Their Own Terms: A Historiographical Essay," 23-30; Karen Sanchez-Eppler, Touching Liberty: Abolitionism, Feminism, and the Politics of the Body (Berkeley, 1993); Julie Roy Jeffrey, The Great Silent Army of Abolitionism: Ordinary Women in the Antislavery Movement (Chapel Hill, 1998); and Shirley J. Yee, Black Women Abolitionists: A Study in Activism, 1828-1860 (Knoxville, TN, 1992).
11. Perhaps no subject has received more attention from antebellum women's historians for the past thirty years than the connections between women's abolitionism and the origins of feminism and woman's rights. Still, general histories of antislavery continually fail to integrate women abolitionists, except to emphasize women as a problem ("the woman question" that produced an abolitionist schism), or to mention briefly the woman's rights movement. A thorough engagement with gender remains rare in surveys of abolitionism. With the exception of Herbert Aptheker, none of the general histories of abolitionism since 1984 (all written by men) engages the issues of women or gender aside from a passing reference to "woman's rights." Even the most recent survey of antebellum reform, Robert H. Abzug, Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination (New York, 1994) frames his final two chapters around the twin issues of the "Woman Question" and the struggle for woman's rights. No comprehensive work on gender and colonization yet exists. On women abolitionists, see Alma Lutz, Crusade for Freedom: Women of the Antislavery Movement (Boston, 1968); Blanche Classman Hersh, The Slavery of Sex: Feminist-Abolitionists in America (Urbana, 1978); Aileen S. Kraditor, Means and Ends in American Abolitionism (New York, 1967), chapter 3; Gerda Lerner, The Grimké Sisters from South Carolina (New York, 1967); Nancy A. Hewitt, Women's Activism and Social Change (Ithaca, 1984); Jean Fagan Yellin, Women and Sisters: The Antislavery Feminists in American Culture (New Haven, 1989); Jean Pagan Yellin and John Van Horne, eds., The Abolitionist Sisterhood: Women's Political Culture in Antebellum America (Ithaca, 1994); especially Nancy A. Hewitt, "On Their Own Terms: A Historiographical Essay," 23-30; Karen Sanchez-Eppler, Touching Liberty: Abolitionism, Feminism, and the Politics of the Body (Berkeley, 1993); Julie Roy Jeffrey, The Great Silent Army of Abolitionism: Ordinary Women in the Antislavery Movement (Chapel Hill, 1998); and Shirley J. Yee, Black Women Abolitionists: A Study in Activism, 1828-1860 (Knoxville, TN, 1992).
12. Perhaps no subject has received more attention from antebellum women's historians for the past thirty years than the connections between women's abolitionism and the origins of feminism and woman's rights. Still, general histories of antislavery continually fail to integrate women abolitionists, except to emphasize women as a problem ("the woman question" that produced an abolitionist schism), or to mention briefly the woman's rights movement. A thorough engagement with gender remains rare in surveys of abolitionism. With the exception of Herbert Aptheker, none of the general histories of abolitionism since 1984 (all written by men) engages the issues of women or gender aside from a passing reference to "woman's rights." Even the most recent survey of antebellum reform, Robert H. Abzug, Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination (New York, 1994) frames his final two chapters around the twin issues of the "Woman Question" and the struggle for woman's rights. No comprehensive work on gender and colonization yet exists. On women abolitionists, see Alma Lutz, Crusade for Freedom: Women of the Antislavery Movement (Boston, 1968); Blanche Classman Hersh, The Slavery of Sex: Feminist-Abolitionists in America (Urbana, 1978); Aileen S. Kraditor, Means and Ends in American Abolitionism (New York, 1967), chapter 3; Gerda Lerner, The Grimké Sisters from South Carolina (New York, 1967); Nancy A. Hewitt, Women's Activism and Social Change (Ithaca, 1984); Jean Fagan Yellin, Women and Sisters: The Antislavery Feminists in American Culture (New Haven, 1989); Jean Pagan Yellin and John Van Horne, eds., The Abolitionist Sisterhood: Women's Political Culture in Antebellum America (Ithaca, 1994); especially Nancy A. Hewitt, "On Their Own Terms: A Historiographical Essay," 23-30; Karen Sanchez-Eppler, Touching Liberty: Abolitionism, Feminism, and the Politics of the Body (Berkeley, 1993); Julie Roy Jeffrey, The Great Silent Army of Abolitionism: Ordinary Women in the Antislavery Movement (Chapel Hill, 1998); and Shirley J. Yee, Black Women Abolitionists: A Study in Activism, 1828-1860 (Knoxville, TN, 1992).
13. Perhaps no subject has received more attention from antebellum women's historians for the past thirty years than the connections between women's abolitionism and the origins of feminism and woman's rights. Still, general histories of antislavery continually fail to integrate women abolitionists, except to emphasize women as a problem ("the woman question" that produced an abolitionist schism), or to mention briefly the woman's rights movement. A thorough engagement with gender remains rare in surveys of abolitionism. With the exception of Herbert Aptheker, none of the general histories of abolitionism since 1984 (all written by men) engages the issues of women or gender aside from a passing reference to "woman's rights." Even the most recent survey of antebellum reform, Robert H. Abzug, Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination (New York, 1994) frames his final two chapters around the twin issues of the "Woman Question" and the struggle for woman's rights. No comprehensive work on gender and colonization yet exists. On women abolitionists, see Alma Lutz, Crusade for Freedom: Women of the Antislavery Movement (Boston, 1968); Blanche Classman Hersh, The Slavery of Sex: Feminist-Abolitionists in America (Urbana, 1978); Aileen S. Kraditor, Means and Ends in American Abolitionism (New York, 1967), chapter 3; Gerda Lerner, The Grimké Sisters from South Carolina (New York, 1967); Nancy A. Hewitt, Women's Activism and Social Change (Ithaca, 1984); Jean Fagan Yellin, Women and Sisters: The Antislavery Feminists in American Culture (New Haven, 1989); Jean Pagan Yellin and John Van Horne, eds., The Abolitionist Sisterhood: Women's Political Culture in Antebellum America (Ithaca, 1994); especially Nancy A. Hewitt, "On Their Own Terms: A Historiographical Essay," 23-30; Karen Sanchez-Eppler, Touching Liberty: Abolitionism, Feminism, and the Politics of the Body (Berkeley, 1993); Julie Roy Jeffrey, The Great Silent Army of Abolitionism: Ordinary Women in the Antislavery Movement (Chapel Hill, 1998); and Shirley J. Yee, Black Women Abolitionists: A Study in Activism, 1828-1860 (Knoxville, TN, 1992).
14. Perhaps no subject has received more attention from antebellum women's historians for the past thirty years than the connections between women's abolitionism and the origins of feminism and woman's rights. Still, general histories of antislavery continually fail to integrate women abolitionists, except to emphasize women as a problem ("the woman question" that produced an abolitionist schism), or to mention briefly the woman's rights movement. A thorough engagement with gender remains rare in surveys of abolitionism. With the exception of Herbert Aptheker, none of the general histories of abolitionism since 1984 (all written by men) engages the issues of women or gender aside from a passing reference to "woman's rights." Even the most recent survey of antebellum reform, Robert H. Abzug, Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination (New York, 1994) frames his final two chapters around the twin issues of the "Woman Question" and the struggle for woman's rights. No comprehensive work on gender and colonization yet exists. On women abolitionists, see Alma Lutz, Crusade for Freedom: Women of the Antislavery Movement (Boston, 1968); Blanche Classman Hersh, The Slavery of Sex: Feminist-Abolitionists in America (Urbana, 1978); Aileen S. Kraditor, Means and Ends in American Abolitionism (New York, 1967), chapter 3; Gerda Lerner, The Grimké Sisters from South Carolina (New York, 1967); Nancy A. Hewitt, Women's Activism and Social Change (Ithaca, 1984); Jean Fagan Yellin, Women and Sisters: The Antislavery Feminists in American Culture (New Haven, 1989); Jean Pagan Yellin and John Van Horne, eds., The Abolitionist Sisterhood: Women's Political Culture in Antebellum America (Ithaca, 1994); especially Nancy A. Hewitt, "On Their Own Terms: A Historiographical Essay," 23-30; Karen Sanchez-Eppler, Touching Liberty: Abolitionism, Feminism, and the Politics of the Body (Berkeley, 1993); Julie Roy Jeffrey, The Great Silent Army of Abolitionism: Ordinary Women in the Antislavery Movement (Chapel Hill, 1998); and Shirley J. Yee, Black Women Abolitionists: A Study in Activism, 1828-1860 (Knoxville, TN, 1992).
15. Perhaps no subject has received more attention from antebellum women's historians for the past thirty years than the connections between women's abolitionism and the origins of feminism and woman's rights. Still, general histories of antislavery continually fail to integrate women abolitionists, except to emphasize women as a problem ("the woman question" that produced an abolitionist schism), or to mention briefly the woman's rights movement. A thorough engagement with gender remains rare in surveys of abolitionism. With the exception of Herbert Aptheker, none of the general histories of abolitionism since 1984 (all written by men) engages the issues of women or gender aside from a passing reference to "woman's rights." Even the most recent survey of antebellum reform, Robert H. Abzug, Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination (New York, 1994) frames his final two chapters around the twin issues of the "Woman Question" and the struggle for woman's rights. No comprehensive work on gender and colonization yet exists. On women abolitionists, see Alma Lutz, Crusade for Freedom: Women of the Antislavery Movement (Boston, 1968); Blanche Classman Hersh, The Slavery of Sex: Feminist-Abolitionists in America (Urbana, 1978); Aileen S. Kraditor, Means and Ends in American Abolitionism (New York, 1967), chapter 3; Gerda Lerner, The Grimké Sisters from South Carolina (New York, 1967); Nancy A. Hewitt, Women's Activism and Social Change (Ithaca, 1984); Jean Fagan Yellin, Women and Sisters: The Antislavery Feminists in American Culture (New Haven, 1989); Jean Pagan Yellin and John Van Horne, eds., The Abolitionist Sisterhood: Women's Political Culture in Antebellum America (Ithaca, 1994); especially Nancy A. Hewitt, "On Their Own Terms: A Historiographical Essay," 23-30; Karen Sanchez-Eppler, Touching Liberty: Abolitionism, Feminism, and the Politics of the Body (Berkeley, 1993); Julie Roy Jeffrey, The Great Silent Army of Abolitionism: Ordinary Women in the Antislavery Movement (Chapel Hill, 1998); and Shirley J. Yee, Black Women Abolitionists: A Study in Activism, 1828-1860 (Knoxville, TN, 1992).
16. See, for example, Joan Wallach Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (New York, 1988); and the introduction along with Nancy Cott's essay, "Men's History and Women's History," in Mark C. Carnes and Clyde Griffen, eds., Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America (Chicago, 1990), 1-7, 205-11.
17. See, for example, Joan Wallach Scott, Gender and the Politics of History (New York, 1988); and the introduction along with Nancy Cott's essay, "Men's History and Women's History," in Mark C. Carnes and Clyde Griffen, eds., Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America (Chicago, 1990), 1-7, 205-11.
18. Gary B. Nash, Forging Freedom: The Formation of Philadelphia's Black Community, 1720-1840 (Cambridge, MA, 1988); Julie Winch, Philadelphia's Black Elite: Activism, Accommodation, and the Struggle for Autonomy, 1787-1848 (Philadelphia, 1988).
19. Gary B. Nash, Forging Freedom: The Formation of Philadelphia's Black Community, 1720-1840 (Cambridge, MA, 1988); Julie Winch, Philadelphia's Black Elite: Activism, Accommodation, and the Struggle for Autonomy, 1787-1848 (Philadelphia, 1988).
20. Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, in the United States, . . . 1834 (New York, 1834), 5, reprinted in Howard H. Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830-1864 (New York, 1969); American Colonization Society, Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 3; African Repository 9 (Jul. 1833): 150; P. J. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 1816-1865 (New York, 1961), 1-11; 120-21; The First Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States (Washington, 1818), 1-3 (hereafter all citations will be given as American Colo-nization Society, Annual Report); African Repository 12 (Jul. 1836): 207; 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159; 16 (Apr. 1840): 112; 16 (July 1840); 207; 13 (Jan. 1837): 33, 38; 12 (Jun. 1836): 186; Mathew Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society . . . , 5th ed. (Philadelphia, 1832), 18-19.
21. Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, in the United States, . . . 1834 (New York, 1834), 5, reprinted in Howard H. Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830-1864 (New York, 1969); American Colonization Society, Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 3; African Repository 9 (Jul. 1833): 150; P. J. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 1816-1865 (New York, 1961), 1-11; 120-21; The First Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States (Washington, 1818), 1-3 (hereafter all citations will be given as American Colo-nization Society, Annual Report); African Repository 12 (Jul. 1836): 207; 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159; 16 (Apr. 1840): 112; 16 (July 1840); 207; 13 (Jan. 1837): 33, 38; 12 (Jun. 1836): 186; Mathew Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society . . . , 5th ed. (Philadelphia, 1832), 18-19.
22. Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, in the United States, . . . 1834 (New York, 1834), 5, reprinted in Howard H. Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830-1864 (New York, 1969); American Colonization Society, Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 3; African Repository 9 (Jul. 1833): 150; P. J. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 1816-1865 (New York, 1961), 1-11; 120-21; The First Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States (Washington, 1818), 1-3 (hereafter all citations will be given as American Colo-nization Society, Annual Report); African Repository 12 (Jul. 1836): 207; 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159; 16 (Apr. 1840): 112; 16 (July 1840); 207; 13 (Jan. 1837): 33, 38; 12 (Jun. 1836): 186; Mathew Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society . . . , 5th ed. (Philadelphia, 1832), 18-19.
23. Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, in the United States, . . . 1834 (New York, 1834), 5, reprinted in Howard H. Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830-1864 (New York, 1969); American Colonization Society, Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 3; African Repository 9 (Jul. 1833): 150; P. J. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 1816-1865 (New York, 1961), 1-11; 120-21; The First Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States (Washington, 1818), 1-3 (hereafter all citations will be given as American Colo-nization Society, Annual Report); African Repository 12 (Jul. 1836): 207; 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159; 16 (Apr. 1840): 112; 16 (July 1840); 207; 13 (Jan. 1837): 33, 38; 12 (Jun. 1836): 186; Mathew Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society . . . , 5th ed. (Philadelphia, 1832), 18-19.
24. Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, in the United States, . . . 1834 (New York, 1834), 5, reprinted in Howard H. Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830-1864 (New York, 1969); American Colonization Society, Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 3; African Repository 9 (Jul. 1833): 150; P. J. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 1816-1865 (New York, 1961), 1-11; 120-21; The First Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States (Washington, 1818), 1-3 (hereafter all citations will be given as American Colo-nization Society, Annual Report); African Repository 12 (Jul. 1836): 207; 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159; 16 (Apr. 1840): 112; 16 (July 1840); 207; 13 (Jan. 1837): 33, 38; 12 (Jun. 1836): 186; Mathew Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society . . . , 5th ed. (Philadelphia, 1832), 18-19.
25. Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, in the United States, . . . 1834 (New York, 1834), 5, reprinted in Howard H. Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830-1864 (New York, 1969); American Colonization Society, Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 3; African Repository 9 (Jul. 1833): 150; P. J. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 1816-1865 (New York, 1961), 1-11; 120-21; The First Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States (Washington, 1818), 1-3 (hereafter all citations will be given as American Colo-nization Society, Annual Report); African Repository 12 (Jul. 1836): 207; 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159; 16 (Apr. 1840): 112; 16 (July 1840); 207; 13 (Jan. 1837): 33, 38; 12 (Jun. 1836): 186; Mathew Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society . . . , 5th ed. (Philadelphia, 1832), 18-19.
26. Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, in the United States, . . . 1834 (New York, 1834), 5, reprinted in Howard H. Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830-1864 (New York, 1969); American Colonization Society, Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 3; African Repository 9 (Jul. 1833): 150; P. J. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 1816-1865 (New York, 1961), 1-11; 120-21; The First Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States (Washington, 1818), 1-3 (hereafter all citations will be given as American Colo-nization Society, Annual Report); African Repository 12 (Jul. 1836): 207; 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159; 16 (Apr. 1840): 112; 16 (July 1840); 207; 13 (Jan. 1837): 33, 38; 12 (Jun. 1836): 186; Mathew Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society . . . , 5th ed. (Philadelphia, 1832), 18-19.
27. Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, in the United States, . . . 1834 (New York, 1834), 5, reprinted in Howard H. Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830-1864 (New York, 1969); American Colonization Society, Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 3; African Repository 9 (Jul. 1833): 150; P. J. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 1816-1865 (New York, 1961), 1-11; 120-21; The First Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States (Washington, 1818), 1-3 (hereafter all citations will be given as American Colo-nization Society, Annual Report); African Repository 12 (Jul. 1836): 207; 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159; 16 (Apr. 1840): 112; 16 (July 1840); 207; 13 (Jan. 1837): 33, 38; 12 (Jun. 1836): 186; Mathew Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society . . . , 5th ed. (Philadelphia, 1832), 18-19.
28. Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, in the United States, . . . 1834 (New York, 1834), 5, reprinted in Howard H. Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830-1864 (New York, 1969); American Colonization Society, Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 3; African Repository 9 (Jul. 1833): 150; P. J. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 1816-1865 (New York, 1961), 1-11; 120-21; The First Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States (Washington, 1818), 1-3 (hereafter all citations will be given as American Colo-nization Society, Annual Report); African Repository 12 (Jul. 1836): 207; 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159; 16 (Apr. 1840): 112; 16 (July 1840); 207; 13 (Jan. 1837): 33, 38; 12 (Jun. 1836): 186; Mathew Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society . . . , 5th ed. (Philadelphia, 1832), 18-19.
29. Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, in the United States, . . . 1834 (New York, 1834), 5, reprinted in Howard H. Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830-1864 (New York, 1969); American Colonization Society, Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 3; African Repository 9 (Jul. 1833): 150; P. J. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 1816-1865 (New York, 1961), 1-11; 120-21; The First Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States (Washington, 1818), 1-3 (hereafter all citations will be given as American Colo-nization Society, Annual Report); African Repository 12 (Jul. 1836): 207; 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159; 16 (Apr. 1840): 112; 16 (July 1840); 207; 13 (Jan. 1837): 33, 38; 12 (Jun. 1836): 186; Mathew Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society . . . , 5th ed. (Philadelphia, 1832), 18-19.
30. Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, in the United States, . . . 1834 (New York, 1834), 5, reprinted in Howard H. Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830-1864 (New York, 1969); American Colonization Society, Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 3; African Repository 9 (Jul. 1833): 150; P. J. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 1816-1865 (New York, 1961), 1-11; 120-21; The First Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States (Washington, 1818), 1-3 (hereafter all citations will be given as American Colo-nization Society, Annual Report); African Repository 12 (Jul. 1836): 207; 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159; 16 (Apr. 1840): 112; 16 (July 1840); 207; 13 (Jan. 1837): 33, 38; 12 (Jun. 1836): 186; Mathew Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society . . . , 5th ed. (Philadelphia, 1832), 18-19.
31. Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, in the United States, . . . 1834 (New York, 1834), 5, reprinted in Howard H. Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830-1864 (New York, 1969); American Colonization Society, Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 3; African Repository 9 (Jul. 1833): 150; P. J. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 1816-1865 (New York, 1961), 1-11; 120-21; The First Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States (Washington, 1818), 1-3 (hereafter all citations will be given as American Colo-nization Society, Annual Report); African Repository 12 (Jul. 1836): 207; 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159; 16 (Apr. 1840): 112; 16 (July 1840); 207; 13 (Jan. 1837): 33, 38; 12 (Jun. 1836): 186; Mathew Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society . . . , 5th ed. (Philadelphia, 1832), 18-19.
32. Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, in the United States, . . . 1834 (New York, 1834), 5, reprinted in Howard H. Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830-1864 (New York, 1969); American Colonization Society, Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 3; African Repository 9 (Jul. 1833): 150; P. J. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 1816-1865 (New York, 1961), 1-11; 120-21; The First Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States (Washington, 1818), 1-3 (hereafter all citations will be given as American Colo-nization Society, Annual Report); African Repository 12 (Jul. 1836): 207; 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159; 16 (Apr. 1840): 112; 16 (July 1840); 207; 13 (Jan. 1837): 33, 38; 12 (Jun. 1836): 186; Mathew Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society . . . , 5th ed. (Philadelphia, 1832), 18-19.
33. Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, in the United States, . . . 1834 (New York, 1834), 5, reprinted in Howard H. Bell, ed., Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions, 1830-1864 (New York, 1969); American Colonization Society, Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 3; African Repository 9 (Jul. 1833): 150; P. J. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 1816-1865 (New York, 1961), 1-11; 120-21; The First Annual Report of the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Colour of the United States (Washington, 1818), 1-3 (hereafter all citations will be given as American Colo-nization Society, Annual Report); African Repository 12 (Jul. 1836): 207; 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159; 16 (Apr. 1840): 112; 16 (July 1840); 207; 13 (Jan. 1837): 33, 38; 12 (Jun. 1836): 186; Mathew Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society . . . , 5th ed. (Philadelphia, 1832), 18-19.
34. Frederick Freeman, Yaradee; A Plea for Africa, In Familiar Conversations on the Subject of Slavery and Colonization, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia, 1837), 175-76; Sarah Forten to Angelina Grimké, April 15, 1837, Letters of Theodore Dwight Wald, Angelina Grimké Weld and Sarah Grimké, 1822-1844, ed. Gilbert H. Barnes and Dwight L. Dumond (New York, 1934), 1:380; George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914 (New York, 1971), 16-19.
35. Frederick Freeman, Yaradee; A Plea for Africa, In Familiar Conversations on the Subject of Slavery and Colonization, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia, 1837), 175-76; Sarah Forten to Angelina Grimké, April 15, 1837, Letters of Theodore Dwight Wald, Angelina Grimké Weld and Sarah Grimké, 1822-1844, ed. Gilbert H. Barnes and Dwight L. Dumond (New York, 1934), 1:380; George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914 (New York, 1971), 16-19.
36. Frederick Freeman, Yaradee; A Plea for Africa, In Familiar Conversations on the Subject of Slavery and Colonization, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia, 1837), 175-76; Sarah Forten to Angelina Grimké, April 15, 1837, Letters of Theodore Dwight Wald, Angelina Grimké Weld and Sarah Grimké, 1822-1844, ed. Gilbert H. Barnes and Dwight L. Dumond (New York, 1934), 1:380; George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914 (New York, 1971), 16-19.
37. Resolutions and Remonstrances of the People of Colour Against Colonization to the Coast of Africa (Philadelphia, 1818), 3-8; Louis R. Mehlinger, "The Attitude of the Free Negro Toward African Colonization," Journal of Negro History 1 (1916): 277-79; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 14-16; Augustus Washington, "Thoughts on the American Colonization Society," African Repository 27 (1851), reprinted in Wilson Jeremiah Moses, ed., Liberian Dreams: Back to Africa Narratives from the 1850s (University Park, PA, 1998), 195; The Liberator, Jan. 22, 1831, Mar. 12, 1831, Mar. 19, 1831; William L. Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization (Boston, 1832), part II, 9-13; Winch, Philadelphia's Black Elite, 27-47; Nash, Forging Freedom, 233-41.
38. Resolutions and Remonstrances of the People of Colour Against Colonization to the Coast of Africa (Philadelphia, 1818), 3-8; Louis R. Mehlinger, "The Attitude of the Free Negro Toward African Colonization," Journal of Negro History 1 (1916): 277-79; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 14-16; Augustus Washington, "Thoughts on the American Colonization Society," African Repository 27 (1851), reprinted in Wilson Jeremiah Moses, ed., Liberian Dreams: Back to Africa Narratives from the 1850s (University Park, PA, 1998), 195; The Liberator, Jan. 22, 1831, Mar. 12, 1831, Mar. 19, 1831; William L. Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization (Boston, 1832), part II, 9-13; Winch, Philadelphia's Black Elite, 27-47; Nash, Forging Freedom, 233-41.
39. Resolutions and Remonstrances of the People of Colour Against Colonization to the Coast of Africa (Philadelphia, 1818), 3-8; Louis R. Mehlinger, "The Attitude of the Free Negro Toward African Colonization," Journal of Negro History 1 (1916): 277-79; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 14-16; Augustus Washington, "Thoughts on the American Colonization Society," African Repository 27 (1851), reprinted in Wilson Jeremiah Moses, ed., Liberian Dreams: Back to Africa Narratives from the 1850s (University Park, PA, 1998), 195; The Liberator, Jan. 22, 1831, Mar. 12, 1831, Mar. 19, 1831; William L. Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization (Boston, 1832), part II, 9-13; Winch, Philadelphia's Black Elite, 27-47; Nash, Forging Freedom, 233-41.
40. Resolutions and Remonstrances of the People of Colour Against Colonization to the Coast of Africa (Philadelphia, 1818), 3-8; Louis R. Mehlinger, "The Attitude of the Free Negro Toward African Colonization," Journal of Negro History 1 (1916): 277-79; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 14-16; Augustus Washington, "Thoughts on the American Colonization Society," African Repository 27 (1851), reprinted in Wilson Jeremiah Moses, ed., Liberian Dreams: Back to Africa Narratives from the 1850s (University Park, PA, 1998), 195; The Liberator, Jan. 22, 1831, Mar. 12, 1831, Mar. 19, 1831; William L. Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization (Boston, 1832), part II, 9-13; Winch, Philadelphia's Black Elite, 27-47; Nash, Forging Freedom, 233-41.
41. Resolutions and Remonstrances of the People of Colour Against Colonization to the Coast of Africa (Philadelphia, 1818), 3-8; Louis R. Mehlinger, "The Attitude of the Free Negro Toward African Colonization," Journal of Negro History 1 (1916): 277-79; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 14-16; Augustus Washington, "Thoughts on the American Colonization Society," African Repository 27 (1851), reprinted in Wilson Jeremiah Moses, ed., Liberian Dreams: Back to Africa Narratives from the 1850s (University Park, PA, 1998), 195; The Liberator, Jan. 22, 1831, Mar. 12, 1831, Mar. 19, 1831; William L. Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization (Boston, 1832), part II, 9-13; Winch, Philadelphia's Black Elite, 27-47; Nash, Forging Freedom, 233-41.
42. Resolutions and Remonstrances of the People of Colour Against Colonization to the Coast of Africa (Philadelphia, 1818), 3-8; Louis R. Mehlinger, "The Attitude of the Free Negro Toward African Colonization," Journal of Negro History 1 (1916): 277-79; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 14-16; Augustus Washington, "Thoughts on the American Colonization Society," African Repository 27 (1851), reprinted in Wilson Jeremiah Moses, ed., Liberian Dreams: Back to Africa Narratives from the 1850s (University Park, PA, 1998), 195; The Liberator, Jan. 22, 1831, Mar. 12, 1831, Mar. 19, 1831; William L. Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization (Boston, 1832), part II, 9-13; Winch, Philadelphia's Black Elite, 27-47; Nash, Forging Freedom, 233-41.
43. Resolutions and Remonstrances of the People of Colour Against Colonization to the Coast of Africa (Philadelphia, 1818), 3-8; Louis R. Mehlinger, "The Attitude of the Free Negro Toward African Colonization," Journal of Negro History 1 (1916): 277-79; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 14-16; Augustus Washington, "Thoughts on the American Colonization Society," African Repository 27 (1851), reprinted in Wilson Jeremiah Moses, ed., Liberian Dreams: Back to Africa Narratives from the 1850s (University Park, PA, 1998), 195; The Liberator, Jan. 22, 1831, Mar. 12, 1831, Mar. 19, 1831; William L. Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization (Boston, 1832), part II, 9-13; Winch, Philadelphia's Black Elite, 27-47; Nash, Forging Freedom, 233-41.
44. Resolutions and Remonstrances of the People of Colour Against Colonization to the Coast of Africa (Philadelphia, 1818), 3-8; Louis R. Mehlinger, "The Attitude of the Free Negro Toward African Colonization," Journal of Negro History 1 (1916): 277-79; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 14-16; Augustus Washington, "Thoughts on the American Colonization Society," African Repository 27 (1851), reprinted in Wilson Jeremiah Moses, ed., Liberian Dreams: Back to Africa Narratives from the 1850s (University Park, PA, 1998), 195; The Liberator, Jan. 22, 1831, Mar. 12, 1831, Mar. 19, 1831; William L. Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization (Boston, 1832), part II, 9-13; Winch, Philadelphia's Black Elite, 27-47; Nash, Forging Freedom, 233-41.
45. Resolutions and Remonstrances of the People of Colour Against Colonization to the Coast of Africa (Philadelphia, 1818), 3-8; Louis R. Mehlinger, "The Attitude of the Free Negro Toward African Colonization," Journal of Negro History 1 (1916): 277-79; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 14-16; Augustus Washington, "Thoughts on the American Colonization Society," African Repository 27 (1851), reprinted in Wilson Jeremiah Moses, ed., Liberian Dreams: Back to Africa Narratives from the 1850s (University Park, PA, 1998), 195; The Liberator, Jan. 22, 1831, Mar. 12, 1831, Mar. 19, 1831; William L. Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization (Boston, 1832), part II, 9-13; Winch, Philadelphia's Black Elite, 27-47; Nash, Forging Freedom, 233-41.
46. Based on an analysis of the American Colonization Society's annual reports from 1817 to 1840, and colonization newspapers, such as the African Repository (Washington, D.C.), 1825-1840; the Colonization Herald (Philadelphia), 1835-1840, and The Colonizationist (Boston), 1833-34. have been able to identify nineteen additional women's societies established between 1832 and 1840, but men's groups still heavily outnumbered them; for example, nearly six times as many new men's societies (33 to 6) were reported in the African Repository in 1833-34.
47. Based on an analysis of the American Colonization Society's annual reports from 1817 to 1840, and colonization newspapers, such as the African Repository (Washington, D.C.), 1825-1840; the Colonization Herald (Philadelphia), 1835-1840, and The Colonizationist (Boston), 1833-34. have been able to identify nineteen additional women's societies established between 1832 and 1840, but men's groups still heavily outnumbered them; for example, nearly six times as many new men's societies (33 to 6) were reported in the African Repository in 1833-34.
48. Based on an analysis of the American Colonization Society's annual reports from 1817 to 1840, and colonization newspapers, such as the African Repository (Washington, D.C.), 1825-1840; the Colonization Herald (Philadelphia), 1835-1840, and The Colonizationist (Boston), 1833-34. have been able to identify nineteen additional women's societies established between 1832 and 1840, but men's groups still heavily outnumbered them; for example, nearly six times as many new men's societies (33 to 6) were reported in the African Repository in 1833-34.
49. Based on an analysis of the American Colonization Society's annual reports from 1817 to 1840, and colonization newspapers, such as the African Repository (Washington, D.C.), 1825-1840; the Colonization Herald (Philadelphia), 1835-1840, and The Colonizationist (Boston), 1833-34. I have been able to identify nineteen additional women's societies established between 1832 and 1840, but men's groups still heavily outnumbered them; for example, nearly six times as many new men's societies (33 to 6) were reported in the African Repository in 1833-34.
50. Lawrence J. Friedman, Gregarious Saints: Self and Community in American Abolitionism, 1830-1870 (Cambridge, 1982), 14-16.
51. Annual Reports of the American Society for the Colonizing of Free People of Colour of the United States, vol. 1-33 (Washington, 1818-1850; reprint ed., New York, 1969); Philip S. Foner, ed., The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, vol. 1 (New York, 1950), 390.
52. Annual Reports of the American Society for the Colonizing of Free People of Colour of the United States, vol. 1-33 (Washington, 1818-1850; reprint ed., New York, 1969); Philip S. Foner, ed., The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, vol. 1 (New York, 1950), 390.
53. Annual Reports of the American Society for the Colonizing of Free People of Colour of the United States, vol. 1-33 (Washington, 1818-1850; reprint ed., New York, 1969); Philip S. Foner, ed., The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, vol. 1 (New York, 1950), 390.
54. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 19-22, 34-36, 48-58, 169-87; National Intelligencer, Jan. 16, 1817; Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 16, 1836): 103; 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 1; 2 (Jan. 21, 1837): 174; 2 (Feb. 4, 1837): 178; n.s. 1 (Mar. 1839): 120-25; African Repository 12 (May 1836): 152; American Colonization Society, Second Annual Report (Washington, 1819), 10-17; Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 11-14, 33, 37; Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society, 15, 17.
55. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 19-22, 34-36, 48-58, 169-87; National Intelligencer, Jan. 16, 1817; Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 16, 1836): 103; 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 1; 2 (Jan. 21, 1837): 174; 2 (Feb. 4, 1837): 178; n.s. 1 (Mar. 1839): 120-25; African Repository 12 (May 1836): 152; American Colonization Society, Second Annual Report (Washington, 1819), 10-17; Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 11-14, 33, 37; Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society, 15, 17.
56. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 19-22, 34-36, 48-58, 169-87; National Intelligencer, Jan. 16, 1817; Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 16, 1836): 103; 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 1; 2 (Jan. 21, 1837): 174; 2 (Feb. 4, 1837): 178; n.s. 1 (Mar. 1839): 120-25; African Repository 12 (May 1836): 152; American Colonization Society, Second Annual Report (Washington, 1819), 10-17; Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 11-14, 33, 37; Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society, 15, 17.
57. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 19-22, 34-36, 48-58, 169-87; National Intelligencer, Jan. 16, 1817; Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 16, 1836): 103; 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 1; 2 (Jan. 21, 1837): 174; 2 (Feb. 4, 1837): 178; n.s. 1 (Mar. 1839): 120-25; African Repository 12 (May 1836): 152; American Colonization Society, Second Annual Report (Washington, 1819), 10-17; Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 11-14, 33, 37; Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society, 15, 17.
58. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 19-22, 34-36, 48-58, 169-87; National Intelligencer, Jan. 16, 1817; Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 16, 1836): 103; 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 1; 2 (Jan. 21, 1837): 174; 2 (Feb. 4, 1837): 178; n.s. 1 (Mar. 1839): 120-25; African Repository 12 (May 1836): 152; American Colonization Society, Second Annual Report (Washington, 1819), 10-17; Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 11-14, 33, 37; Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society, 15, 17.
59. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 19-22, 34-36, 48-58, 169-87; National Intelligencer, Jan. 16, 1817; Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 16, 1836): 103; 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 1; 2 (Jan. 21, 1837): 174; 2 (Feb. 4, 1837): 178; n.s. 1 (Mar. 1839): 120-25; African Repository 12 (May 1836): 152; American Colonization Society, Second Annual Report (Washington, 1819), 10-17; Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 11-14, 33, 37; Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society, 15, 17.
60. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 19-22, 34-36, 48-58, 169-87; National Intelligencer, Jan. 16, 1817; Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 16, 1836): 103; 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 1; 2 (Jan. 21, 1837): 174; 2 (Feb. 4, 1837): 178; n.s. 1 (Mar. 1839): 120-25; African Repository 12 (May 1836): 152; American Colonization Society, Second Annual Report (Washington, 1819), 10-17; Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 11-14, 33, 37; Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society, 15, 17.
61. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 19-22, 34-36, 48-58, 169-87; National Intelligencer, Jan. 16, 1817; Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 16, 1836): 103; 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 1; 2 (Jan. 21, 1837): 174; 2 (Feb. 4, 1837): 178; n.s. 1 (Mar. 1839): 120-25; African Repository 12 (May 1836): 152; American Colonization Society, Second Annual Report (Washington, 1819), 10-17; Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 11-14, 33, 37; Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society, 15, 17.
62. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 19-22, 34-36, 48-58, 169-87; National Intelligencer, Jan. 16, 1817; Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 16, 1836): 103; 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 1; 2 (Jan. 21, 1837): 174; 2 (Feb. 4, 1837): 178; n.s. 1 (Mar. 1839): 120-25; African Repository 12 (May 1836): 152; American Colonization Society, Second Annual Report (Washington, 1819), 10-17; Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 11-14, 33, 37; Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society, 15, 17.
63. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 19-22, 34-36, 48-58, 169-87; National Intelligencer, Jan. 16, 1817; Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 16, 1836): 103; 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 1; 2 (Jan. 21, 1837): 174; 2 (Feb. 4, 1837): 178; n.s. 1 (Mar. 1839): 120-25; African Repository 12 (May 1836): 152; American Colonization Society, Second Annual Report (Washington, 1819), 10-17; Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 11-14, 33, 37; Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society, 15, 17.
64. Staudenraus, The African Colonization Movement, 19-22, 34-36, 48-58, 169-87; National Intelligencer, Jan. 16, 1817; Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 16, 1836): 103; 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 1; 2 (Jan. 21, 1837): 174; 2 (Feb. 4, 1837): 178; n.s. 1 (Mar. 1839): 120-25; African Repository 12 (May 1836): 152; American Colonization Society, Second Annual Report (Washington, 1819), 10-17; Third Annual Report (Washington, 1820), 11-14, 33, 37; Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society, 15, 17.
65. African Repository 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jun. 1833): 99; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159-60; 9 (Dec. 1833): 3 15 ; 12 (May 1836): 140; 14 (May 1838): 160; John H. Kennedy, Sympathy, Its Foundation and Legitimate Exercise Considered, in Special Relation to Africa: A Discourse Delivered on the Fourth of July 1828, in the Sixth Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1828), 10; Foner, ed., Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, vol. 2, 189. For the exclusion of Northern free blacks from July 4th celebrations, see: Susan Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1986), 38-48.
66. African Repository 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jun. 1833): 99; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159-60; 9 (Dec. 1833): 3 15 ; 12 (May 1836): 140; 14 (May 1838): 160; John H. Kennedy, Sympathy, Its Foundation and Legitimate Exercise Considered, in Special Relation to Africa: A Discourse Delivered on the Fourth of July 1828, in the Sixth Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1828), 10; Foner, ed., Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, vol. 2, 189. For the exclusion of Northern free blacks from July 4th celebrations, see: Susan Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1986), 38-48.
67. African Repository 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jun. 1833): 99; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159-60; 9 (Dec. 1833): 3 15 ; 12 (May 1836): 140; 14 (May 1838): 160; John H. Kennedy, Sympathy, Its Foundation and Legitimate Exercise Considered, in Special Relation to Africa: A Discourse Delivered on the Fourth of July 1828, in the Sixth Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1828), 10; Foner, ed., Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, vol. 2, 189. For the exclusion of Northern free blacks from July 4th celebrations, see: Susan Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1986), 38-48.
68. African Repository 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jun. 1833): 99; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159-60; 9 (Dec. 1833): 3 15 ; 12 (May 1836): 140; 14 (May 1838): 160; John H. Kennedy, Sympathy, Its Foundation and Legitimate Exercise Considered, in Special Relation to Africa: A Discourse Delivered on the Fourth of July 1828, in the Sixth Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1828), 10; Foner, ed., Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, vol. 2, 189. For the exclusion of Northern free blacks from July 4th celebrations, see: Susan Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1986), 38-48.
69. African Repository 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jun. 1833): 99; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159-60; 9 (Dec. 1833): 3 15 ; 12 (May 1836): 140; 14 (May 1838): 160; John H. Kennedy, Sympathy, Its Foundation and Legitimate Exercise Considered, in Special Relation to Africa: A Discourse Delivered on the Fourth of July 1828, in the Sixth Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1828), 10; Foner, ed., Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, vol. 2, 189. For the exclusion of Northern free blacks from July 4th celebrations, see: Susan Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1986), 38-48.
70. African Repository 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jun. 1833): 99; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159-60; 9 (Dec. 1833): 3 15 ; 12 (May 1836): 140; 14 (May 1838): 160; John H. Kennedy, Sympathy, Its Foundation and Legitimate Exercise Considered, in Special Relation to Africa: A Discourse Delivered on the Fourth of July 1828, in the Sixth Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1828), 10; Foner, ed., Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, vol. 2, 189. For the exclusion of Northern free blacks from July 4th celebrations, see: Susan Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1986), 38-48.
71. African Repository 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jun. 1833): 99; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159-60; 9 (Dec. 1833): 3 15 ; 12 (May 1836): 140; 14 (May 1838): 160; John H. Kennedy, Sympathy, Its Foundation and Legitimate Exercise Considered, in Special Relation to Africa: A Discourse Delivered on the Fourth of July 1828, in the Sixth Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1828), 10; Foner, ed., Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, vol. 2, 189. For the exclusion of Northern free blacks from July 4th celebrations, see: Susan Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1986), 38-48.
72. African Repository 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jun. 1833): 99; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159-60; 9 (Dec. 1833): 3 15 ; 12 (May 1836): 140; 14 (May 1838): 160; John H. Kennedy, Sympathy, Its Foundation and Legitimate Exercise Considered, in Special Relation to Africa: A Discourse Delivered on the Fourth of July 1828, in the Sixth Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1828), 10; Foner, ed., Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, vol. 2, 189. For the exclusion of Northern free blacks from July 4th celebrations, see: Susan Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1986), 38-48.
73. African Repository 9 (May. 1833): 95; 9 (Jun. 1833): 99; 9 (Jul. 1833): 159-60; 9 (Dec. 1833): 3 15 ; 12 (May 1836): 140; 14 (May 1838): 160; John H. Kennedy, Sympathy, Its Foundation and Legitimate Exercise Considered, in Special Relation to Africa: A Discourse Delivered on the Fourth of July 1828, in the Sixth Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1828), 10; Foner, ed., Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, vol. 2, 189. For the exclusion of Northern free blacks from July 4th celebrations, see: Susan Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theatre in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1986), 38-48.
74. For contrasting views that suggest that the political arena was not exclusively male, see Elizabeth R. Varon, "Tippecanoe and the Ladies, Too: White Women and Party Politics in Antebellum Virginia," Journal of American History 82 (1995): 494-521; Varon, We Mean to be Counted: White Women & Politics in Antebellum Virginia (Chapel Hill, 1998); Mary P. Ryan, Women in Public: Between Banners and Ballots, 1825-1880 (Baltimore, 1990); Paula Baker, "The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Political Society, 1780-1920," American Historical Review 89 (1984): 620-47; Linda K. Kerber, "The Paradox of Women's Citizenship in the Early Republic: The Case of Martin v. Massachusetts, 1805," American Historical Review 97 (1992): 349-78. For the shift from moral suasion to political action, see Lori D. Ginzberg, " 'Moral Suasion is Moral Balderdash': Women, Politics, and Social Activism in the 1850s," Journal of American History 73 (1986): 601-22.
75. For contrasting views that suggest that the political arena was not exclusively male, see Elizabeth R. Varon, "Tippecanoe and the Ladies, Too: White Women and Party Politics in Antebellum Virginia," Journal of American History 82 (1995): 494-521; Varon, We Mean to be Counted: White Women & Politics in Antebellum Virginia (Chapel Hill, 1998); Mary P. Ryan, Women in Public: Between Banners and Ballots, 1825-1880 (Baltimore, 1990); Paula Baker, "The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Political Society, 1780-1920," American Historical Review 89 (1984): 620-47; Linda K. Kerber, "The Paradox of Women's Citizenship in the Early Republic: The Case of Martin v. Massachusetts, 1805," American Historical Review 97 (1992): 349-78. For the shift from moral suasion to political action, see Lori D. Ginzberg, " 'Moral Suasion is Moral Balderdash': Women, Politics, and Social Activism in the 1850s," Journal of American History 73 (1986): 601-22.
76. For contrasting views that suggest that the political arena was not exclusively male, see Elizabeth R. Varon, "Tippecanoe and the Ladies, Too: White Women and Party Politics in Antebellum Virginia," Journal of American History 82 (1995): 494-521; Varon, We Mean to be Counted: White Women & Politics in Antebellum Virginia (Chapel Hill, 1998); Mary P. Ryan, Women in Public: Between Banners and Ballots, 1825-1880 (Baltimore, 1990); Paula Baker, "The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Political Society, 1780-1920," American Historical Review 89 (1984): 620-47; Linda K. Kerber, "The Paradox of Women's Citizenship in the Early Republic: The Case of Martin v. Massachusetts, 1805," American Historical Review 97 (1992): 349-78. For the shift from moral suasion to political action, see Lori D. Ginzberg, " 'Moral Suasion is Moral Balderdash': Women, Politics, and Social Activism in the 1850s," Journal of American History 73 (1986): 601-22.
77. For contrasting views that suggest that the political arena was not exclusively male, see Elizabeth R. Varon, "Tippecanoe and the Ladies, Too: White Women and Party Politics in Antebellum Virginia," Journal of American History 82 (1995): 494-521; Varon, We Mean to be Counted: White Women & Politics in Antebellum Virginia (Chapel Hill, 1998); Mary P. Ryan, Women in Public: Between Banners and Ballots, 1825-1880 (Baltimore, 1990); Paula Baker, "The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Political Society, 1780-1920," American Historical Review 89 (1984): 620-47; Linda K. Kerber, "The Paradox of Women's Citizenship in the Early Republic: The Case of Martin v. Massachusetts, 1805," American Historical Review 97 (1992): 349-78. For the shift from moral suasion to political action, see Lori D. Ginzberg, " 'Moral Suasion is Moral Balderdash': Women, Politics, and Social Activism in the 1850s," Journal of American History 73 (1986): 601-22.
78. For contrasting views that suggest that the political arena was not exclusively male, see Elizabeth R. Varon, "Tippecanoe and the Ladies, Too: White Women and Party Politics in Antebellum Virginia," Journal of American History 82 (1995): 494-521; Varon, We Mean to be Counted: White Women & Politics in Antebellum Virginia (Chapel Hill, 1998); Mary P. Ryan, Women in Public: Between Banners and Ballots, 1825-1880 (Baltimore, 1990); Paula Baker, "The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Political Society, 1780-1920," American Historical Review 89 (1984): 620-47; Linda K. Kerber, "The Paradox of Women's Citizenship in the Early Republic: The Case of Martin v. Massachusetts, 1805," American Historical Review 97 (1992): 349-78. For the shift from moral suasion to political action, see Lori D. Ginzberg, " 'Moral Suasion is Moral Balderdash': Women, Politics, and Social Activism in the 1850s," Journal of American History 73 (1986): 601-22.
79. For contrasting views that suggest that the political arena was not exclusively male, see Elizabeth R. Varon, "Tippecanoe and the Ladies, Too: White Women and Party Politics in Antebellum Virginia," Journal of American History 82 (1995): 494-521; Varon, We Mean to be Counted: White Women & Politics in Antebellum Virginia (Chapel Hill, 1998); Mary P. Ryan, Women in Public: Between Banners and Ballots, 1825-1880 (Baltimore, 1990); Paula Baker, "The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Political Society, 1780-1920," American Historical Review 89 (1984): 620-47; Linda K. Kerber, "The Paradox of Women's Citizenship in the Early Republic: The Case of Martin v. Massachusetts, 1805," American Historical Review 97 (1992): 349-78. For the shift from moral suasion to political action, see Lori D. Ginzberg, " 'Moral Suasion is Moral Balderdash': Women, Politics, and Social Activism in the 1850s," Journal of American History 73 (1986): 601-22.
80. This argument is developed in greater detail in my forthcoming book manuscript.
81. J. R. Tyson, A Discourse Before the Young Men's Colonization Society of Pennsylvania, Delivered October 24, 1834, in St. Paul's Church, Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1834), 8; Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 18, 1835): 7; Kurt Lee Kocher, "A Duty to America and Africa: A History of the Independent African Colonization Movement in Pennsylvania," Pennsylvania History 51(1984): 128-41; Elif Seifman, "The United Colonization Societies of New-York and Pennsylvania and the Establishment of the African Colony of Bassa Cove," Pennsylvania History 35 (1968): 37-44.
82. J. R. Tyson, A Discourse Before the Young Men's Colonization Society of Pennsylvania, Delivered October 24, 1834, in St. Paul's Church, Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1834), 8; Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 18, 1835): 7; Kurt Lee Kocher, "A Duty to America and Africa: A History of the Independent African Colonization Movement in Pennsylvania," Pennsylvania History 51(1984): 128-41; Elif Seifman, "The United Colonization Societies of New-York and Pennsylvania and the Establishment of the African Colony of Bassa Cove," Pennsylvania History 35 (1968): 37-44.
83. J. R. Tyson, A Discourse Before the Young Men's Colonization Society of Pennsylvania, Delivered October 24, 1834, in St. Paul's Church, Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1834), 8; Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 18, 1835): 7; Kurt Lee Kocher, "A Duty to America and Africa: A History of the Independent African Colonization Movement in Pennsylvania," Pennsylvania History 51(1984): 128-41; Elif Seifman, "The United Colonization Societies of New-York and Pennsylvania and the Establishment of the African Colony of Bassa Cove," Pennsylvania History 35 (1968): 37-44.
84. J. R. Tyson, A Discourse Before the Young Men's Colonization Society of Pennsylvania, Delivered October 24, 1834, in St. Paul's Church, Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1834), 8; Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 18, 1835): 7; Kurt Lee Kocher, "A Duty to America and Africa: A History of the Independent African Colonization Movement in Pennsylvania," Pennsylvania History 51(1984): 128-41; Elif Seifman, "The United Colonization Societies of New-York and Pennsylvania and the Establishment of the African Colony of Bassa Cove," Pennsylvania History 35 (1968): 37-44.
85. "Cresson," in Frank Willing Leach, Old Philadelphia Families in The North American (Philadelphia, 1907-1912), Historical Society of Pennsylvania [hereafter, HSP]; Joseph S. Hepburn, "The Life and Works of Elliott Cresson," Journal of the Franklin Institute 281 (1966); Kocher, "A Duty to America and Africa," 123-28; R. J. M. Blackett, Building an Antislavery Wall: Black Americans in the Atlantic Abolitionist Movement, 1830-1860 (Ithaca, 1983), 53-69; The Letters of William Lloyd Garrison, ed. Walter M. Merrill (Cambridge, Mass., 1971), 1:235-271.
86. "Cresson," in Frank Willing Leach, Old Philadelphia Families in The North American (Philadelphia, 1907-1912), Historical Society of Pennsylvania [hereafter, HSP]; Joseph S. Hepburn, "The Life and Works of Elliott Cresson," Journal of the Franklin Institute 281 (1966); Kocher, "A Duty to America and Africa," 123-28; R. J. M. Blackett, Building an Antislavery Wall: Black Americans in the Atlantic Abolitionist Movement, 1830-1860 (Ithaca, 1983), 53-69; The Letters of William Lloyd Garrison, ed. Walter M. Merrill (Cambridge, Mass., 1971), 1:235-271.
87. "Cresson," in Frank Willing Leach, Old Philadelphia Families in The North American (Philadelphia, 1907-1912), Historical Society of Pennsylvania [hereafter, HSP]; Joseph S. Hepburn, "The Life and Works of Elliott Cresson," Journal of the Franklin Institute 281 (1966); Kocher, "A Duty to America and Africa," 123-28; R. J. M. Blackett, Building an Antislavery Wall: Black Americans in the Atlantic Abolitionist Movement, 1830-1860 (Ithaca, 1983), 53-69; The Letters of William Lloyd Garrison, ed. Walter M. Merrill (Cambridge, Mass., 1971), 1:235-271.
88. "Cresson," in Frank Willing Leach, Old Philadelphia Families in The North American (Philadelphia, 1907-1912), Historical Society of Pennsylvania [hereafter, HSP]; Joseph S. Hepburn, "The Life and Works of Elliott Cresson," Journal of the Franklin Institute 281 (1966); Kocher, "A Duty to America and Africa," 123-28; R. J. M. Blackett, Building an Antislavery Wall: Black Americans in the Atlantic Abolitionist Movement, 1830-1860 (Ithaca, 1983), 53-69; The Letters of William Lloyd Garrison, ed. Walter M. Merrill (Cambridge, Mass., 1971), 1:235-271.
89. "Cresson," in Frank Willing Leach, Old Philadelphia Families in The North American (Philadelphia, 1907-1912), Historical Society of Pennsylvania [hereafter, HSP]; Joseph S. Hepburn, "The Life and Works of Elliott Cresson," Journal of the Franklin Institute 281 (1966); Kocher, "A Duty to America and Africa," 123-28; R. J. M. Blackett, Building an Antislavery Wall: Black Americans in the Atlantic Abolitionist Movement, 1830-1860 (Ithaca, 1983), 53-69; The Letters of William Lloyd Garrison, ed. Walter M. Merrill (Cambridge, Mass., 1971), 1:235-271.
90. American Colonization Society, Twelfth Annual Report (1829), vi; Bruce Dorsey, "City of Brotherly Love: Religious Benevolence, Gender, and Reform in Philadelphia, 1780-1844," (Ph.D. dissertation, Brown University, 1993), ch. 3.
91. American Colonization Society, Twelfth Annual Report (1829), vi; Bruce Dorsey, "City of Brotherly Love: Religious Benevolence, Gender, and Reform in Philadelphia, 1780-1844," (Ph.D. dissertation, Brown University, 1993), ch. 3.
92. For an example later in the century, see Gail Bederman, Manliness & Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880-1917 (Chicago, 1995).
93. Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 1-2; African Repository 12 (Jun. 1836): 185-86; 14 (Sep. 1838): 261; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Mar. 1839): 120-25
94. Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 1-2; African Repository 12 (Jun. 1836): 185-86; 14 (Sep. 1838): 261; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Mar. 1839): 120-25
95. Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 1-2; African Repository 12 (Jun. 1836): 185-86; 14 (Sep. 1838): 261; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Mar. 1839): 120-25
96. Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 1-2; African Repository 12 (Jun. 1836): 185-86; 14 (Sep. 1838): 261; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Mar. 1839): 120-25
97. American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 10; Colonization Herald 1 (Mar. 5, 1836): 89-90; 2 (Dec. 17, 1836): 166; James Oakes, The Ruling Race: A History of American Slaveholders (New York, 1982), 77-95; Joan E. Cashin, A Family Venture: Men and Women on the Southern Frontier (New York, 1991); Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 2.
98. American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 10; Colonization Herald 1 (Mar. 5, 1836): 89-90; 2 (Dec. 17, 1836): 166; James Oakes, The Ruling Race: A History of American Slaveholders (New York, 1982), 77-95; Joan E. Cashin, A Family Venture: Men and Women on the Southern Frontier (New York, 1991); Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 2.
99. American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 10; Colonization Herald 1 (Mar. 5, 1836): 89-90; 2 (Dec. 17, 1836): 166; James Oakes, The Ruling Race: A History of American Slaveholders (New York, 1982), 77-95; Joan E. Cashin, A Family Venture: Men and Women on the Southern Frontier (New York, 1991); Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 2.
100. American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 10; Colonization Herald 1 (Mar. 5, 1836): 89-90; 2 (Dec. 17, 1836): 166; James Oakes, The Ruling Race: A History of American Slaveholders (New York, 1982), 77-95; Joan E. Cashin, A Family Venture: Men and Women on the Southern Frontier (New York, 1991); Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 2.
101. American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 10; Colonization Herald 1 (Mar. 5, 1836): 89-90; 2 (Dec. 17, 1836): 166; James Oakes, The Ruling Race: A History of American Slaveholders (New York, 1982), 77-95; Joan E. Cashin, A Family Venture: Men and Women on the Southern Frontier (New York, 1991); Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 2.
102. American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 10; Colonization Herald 1 (Mar. 5, 1836): 89-90; 2 (Dec. 17, 1836): 166; James Oakes, The Ruling Race: A History of American Slaveholders (New York, 1982), 77-95; Joan E. Cashin, A Family Venture: Men and Women on the Southern Frontier (New York, 1991); Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 2.
103. "Roll of Emigrants That Have Been Sent to the Colony of Liberia, Western Africa, by the American Colonization Society and Its Auxiliaries, to September 1843," U.S. Congress, Senate Documents, 28th Congress, 2nd Sess., 1844, IX, pp. 152-299. African American women comprised over forty percent (43.5%) of the 508 adult emigrants sent by the American Colonization Society on its first fifteen voyages between 1820 and 1828.
104. The literature on empire and domesticity has burgeoned within the past decade, most prominently within the fields of literature and cultural studies. See, for example, Karen Sanchez-Eppler, "Raising Empires like Children: Race, Nation, and Religious Education," American Literary History 8 (1996): 399-425; Amy Kaplan, "Manifest Domesticity," American Literature 70 (1998): 581-605; Vincente L. Rafael, "Colonial Domesticity: White Women and United States Rule in the Philippines," American Literature 67 (1995): 639-66; Lora Romero, "Vanishing Americans: Gender, Empire, and New Historicisim," in Shirley Samuels, ed., The Culture of Sentiment: Race, Gender and Sentimentality in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1992), 115-27; Rosemary Marangoly George, "Homes in the Empire, Empires in the Home," Cultural Critique 26 (Winter 1993-94): 95-127; Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," History Workshop 5 (1978): 9-65; Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Conquest (New York, 1995); and Karen Tranberg Hansen, ed., African Encounters with Domesticity (New Brunswick, 1992).
105. The literature on empire and domesticity has burgeoned within the past decade, most prominently within the fields of literature and cultural studies. See, for example, Karen Sanchez-Eppler, "Raising Empires like Children: Race, Nation, and Religious Education," American Literary History 8 (1996): 399-425; Amy Kaplan, "Manifest Domesticity," American Literature 70 (1998): 581-605; Vincente L. Rafael, "Colonial Domesticity: White Women and United States Rule in the Philippines," American Literature 67 (1995): 639-66; Lora Romero, "Vanishing Americans: Gender, Empire, and New Historicisim," in Shirley Samuels, ed., The Culture of Sentiment: Race, Gender and Sentimentality in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1992), 115-27; Rosemary Marangoly George, "Homes in the Empire, Empires in the Home," Cultural Critique 26 (Winter 1993-94): 95-127; Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," History Workshop 5 (1978): 9-65; Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Conquest (New York, 1995); and Karen Tranberg Hansen, ed., African Encounters with Domesticity (New Brunswick, 1992).
106. The literature on empire and domesticity has burgeoned within the past decade, most prominently within the fields of literature and cultural studies. See, for example, Karen Sanchez-Eppler, "Raising Empires like Children: Race, Nation, and Religious Education," American Literary History 8 (1996): 399-425; Amy Kaplan, "Manifest Domesticity," American Literature 70 (1998): 581-605; Vincente L. Rafael, "Colonial Domesticity: White Women and United States Rule in the Philippines," American Literature 67 (1995): 639-66; Lora Romero, "Vanishing Americans: Gender, Empire, and New Historicisim," in Shirley Samuels, ed., The Culture of Sentiment: Race, Gender and Sentimentality in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1992), 115-27; Rosemary Marangoly George, "Homes in the Empire, Empires in the Home," Cultural Critique 26 (Winter 1993-94): 95-127; Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," History Workshop 5 (1978): 9-65; Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Conquest (New York, 1995); and Karen Tranberg Hansen, ed., African Encounters with Domesticity (New Brunswick, 1992).
107. The literature on empire and domesticity has burgeoned within the past decade, most prominently within the fields of literature and cultural studies. See, for example, Karen Sanchez-Eppler, "Raising Empires like Children: Race, Nation, and Religious Education," American Literary History 8 (1996): 399-425; Amy Kaplan, "Manifest Domesticity," American Literature 70 (1998): 581-605; Vincente L. Rafael, "Colonial Domesticity: White Women and United States Rule in the Philippines," American Literature 67 (1995): 639-66; Lora Romero, "Vanishing Americans: Gender, Empire, and New Historicisim," in Shirley Samuels, ed., The Culture of Sentiment: Race, Gender and Sentimentality in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1992), 115-27; Rosemary Marangoly George, "Homes in the Empire, Empires in the Home," Cultural Critique 26 (Winter 1993-94): 95-127; Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," History Workshop 5 (1978): 9-65; Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Conquest (New York, 1995); and Karen Tranberg Hansen, ed., African Encounters with Domesticity (New Brunswick, 1992).
108. The literature on empire and domesticity has burgeoned within the past decade, most prominently within the fields of literature and cultural studies. See, for example, Karen Sanchez-Eppler, "Raising Empires like Children: Race, Nation, and Religious Education," American Literary History 8 (1996): 399-425; Amy Kaplan, "Manifest Domesticity," American Literature 70 (1998): 581-605; Vincente L. Rafael, "Colonial Domesticity: White Women and United States Rule in the Philippines," American Literature 67 (1995): 639-66; Lora Romero, "Vanishing Americans: Gender, Empire, and New Historicisim," in Shirley Samuels, ed., The Culture of Sentiment: Race, Gender and Sentimentality in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1992), 115-27; Rosemary Marangoly George, "Homes in the Empire, Empires in the Home," Cultural Critique 26 (Winter 1993-94): 95-127; Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," History Workshop 5 (1978): 9-65; Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Conquest (New York, 1995); and Karen Tranberg Hansen, ed., African Encounters with Domesticity (New Brunswick, 1992).
109. The literature on empire and domesticity has burgeoned within the past decade, most prominently within the fields of literature and cultural studies. See, for example, Karen Sanchez-Eppler, "Raising Empires like Children: Race, Nation, and Religious Education," American Literary History 8 (1996): 399-425; Amy Kaplan, "Manifest Domesticity," American Literature 70 (1998): 581-605; Vincente L. Rafael, "Colonial Domesticity: White Women and United States Rule in the Philippines," American Literature 67 (1995): 639-66; Lora Romero, "Vanishing Americans: Gender, Empire, and New Historicisim," in Shirley Samuels, ed., The Culture of Sentiment: Race, Gender and Sentimentality in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1992), 115-27; Rosemary Marangoly George, "Homes in the Empire, Empires in the Home," Cultural Critique 26 (Winter 1993-94): 95-127; Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," History Workshop 5 (1978): 9-65; Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Conquest (New York, 1995); and Karen Tranberg Hansen, ed., African Encounters with Domesticity (New Brunswick, 1992).
110. The literature on empire and domesticity has burgeoned within the past decade, most prominently within the fields of literature and cultural studies. See, for example, Karen Sanchez-Eppler, "Raising Empires like Children: Race, Nation, and Religious Education," American Literary History 8 (1996): 399-425; Amy Kaplan, "Manifest Domesticity," American Literature 70 (1998): 581-605; Vincente L. Rafael, "Colonial Domesticity: White Women and United States Rule in the Philippines," American Literature 67 (1995): 639-66; Lora Romero, "Vanishing Americans: Gender, Empire, and New Historicisim," in Shirley Samuels, ed., The Culture of Sentiment: Race, Gender and Sentimentality in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1992), 115-27; Rosemary Marangoly George, "Homes in the Empire, Empires in the Home," Cultural Critique 26 (Winter 1993-94): 95-127; Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," History Workshop 5 (1978): 9-65; Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Conquest (New York, 1995); and Karen Tranberg Hansen, ed., African Encounters with Domesticity (New Brunswick, 1992).
111. The literature on empire and domesticity has burgeoned within the past decade, most prominently within the fields of literature and cultural studies. See, for example, Karen Sanchez-Eppler, "Raising Empires like Children: Race, Nation, and Religious Education," American Literary History 8 (1996): 399-425; Amy Kaplan, "Manifest Domesticity," American Literature 70 (1998): 581-605; Vincente L. Rafael, "Colonial Domesticity: White Women and United States Rule in the Philippines," American Literature 67 (1995): 639-66; Lora Romero, "Vanishing Americans: Gender, Empire, and New Historicisim," in Shirley Samuels, ed., The Culture of Sentiment: Race, Gender and Sentimentality in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1992), 115-27; Rosemary Marangoly George, "Homes in the Empire, Empires in the Home," Cultural Critique 26 (Winter 1993-94): 95-127; Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," History Workshop 5 (1978): 9-65; Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Conquest (New York, 1995); and Karen Tranberg Hansen, ed., African Encounters with Domesticity (New Brunswick, 1992).
112. African Repository 12 (Jun. 1836): 185; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 15; African Repository 9 (Sep. 1833): 196-99; Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, 5; African Repository 14 (Sep. 1838): 255-62; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jan. 1839): 27-28; The Colonizationist, Aug. 1833, 107. For other criticisms of the missionary objectives of the colonization society, see: Mrs. [Lydia Maria] Child, Anti-Slavery Catechism (Newburyport, MA, 1836), 28; William Lloyd Garrison, An Address Delivered Before the Free People of Color, in Philadelphia, New-York, and Other Cities, During the Month of June, 1831 (Boston, 1831), 22; Lott Gary to Rev. Dr. [William] Staughton, Mar. 13, 1821, cited in Adelaide Cromwell Hill and Martin Kilson, eds., Apropos of Africa (London, 1969), 81.
113. African Repository 12 (Jun. 1836): 185; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 15; African Repository 9 (Sep. 1833): 196-99; Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, 5; African Repository 14 (Sep. 1838): 255-62; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jan. 1839): 27-28; The Colonizationist, Aug. 1833, 107. For other criticisms of the missionary objectives of the colonization society, see: Mrs. [Lydia Maria] Child, Anti-Slavery Catechism (Newburyport, MA, 1836), 28; William Lloyd Garrison, An Address Delivered Before the Free People of Color, in Philadelphia, New-York, and Other Cities, During the Month of June, 1831 (Boston, 1831), 22; Lott Gary to Rev. Dr. [William] Staughton, Mar. 13, 1821, cited in Adelaide Cromwell Hill and Martin Kilson, eds., Apropos of Africa (London, 1969), 81.
114. African Repository 12 (Jun. 1836): 185; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 15; African Repository 9 (Sep. 1833): 196-99; Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, 5; African Repository 14 (Sep. 1838): 255-62; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jan. 1839): 27-28; The Colonizationist, Aug. 1833, 107. For other criticisms of the missionary objectives of the colonization society, see: Mrs. [Lydia Maria] Child, Anti-Slavery Catechism (Newburyport, MA, 1836), 28; William Lloyd Garrison, An Address Delivered Before the Free People of Color, in Philadelphia, New-York, and Other Cities, During the Month of June, 1831 (Boston, 1831), 22; Lott Gary to Rev. Dr. [William] Staughton, Mar. 13, 1821, cited in Adelaide Cromwell Hill and Martin Kilson, eds., Apropos of Africa (London, 1969), 81.
115. African Repository 12 (Jun. 1836): 185; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 15; African Repository 9 (Sep. 1833): 196-99; Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, 5; African Repository 14 (Sep. 1838): 255-62; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jan. 1839): 27-28; The Colonizationist, Aug. 1833, 107. For other criticisms of the missionary objectives of the colonization society, see: Mrs. [Lydia Maria] Child, Anti-Slavery Catechism (Newburyport, MA, 1836), 28; William Lloyd Garrison, An Address Delivered Before the Free People of Color, in Philadelphia, New-York, and Other Cities, During the Month of June, 1831 (Boston, 1831), 22; Lott Gary to Rev. Dr. [William] Staughton, Mar. 13, 1821, cited in Adelaide Cromwell Hill and Martin Kilson, eds., Apropos of Africa (London, 1969), 81.
116. African Repository 12 (Jun. 1836): 185; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 15; African Repository 9 (Sep. 1833): 196-99; Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, 5; African Repository 14 (Sep. 1838): 255-62; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jan. 1839): 27-28; The Colonizationist, Aug. 1833, 107. For other criticisms of the missionary objectives of the colonization society, see: Mrs. [Lydia Maria] Child, Anti-Slavery Catechism (Newburyport, MA, 1836), 28; William Lloyd Garrison, An Address Delivered Before the Free People of Color, in Philadelphia, New-York, and Other Cities, During the Month of June, 1831 (Boston, 1831), 22; Lott Gary to Rev. Dr. [William] Staughton, Mar. 13, 1821, cited in Adelaide Cromwell Hill and Martin Kilson, eds., Apropos of Africa (London, 1969), 81.
117. African Repository 12 (Jun. 1836): 185; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 15; African Repository 9 (Sep. 1833): 196-99; Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, 5; African Repository 14 (Sep. 1838): 255-62; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jan. 1839): 27-28; The Colonizationist, Aug. 1833, 107. For other criticisms of the missionary objectives of the colonization society, see: Mrs. [Lydia Maria] Child, Anti-Slavery Catechism (Newburyport, MA, 1836), 28; William Lloyd Garrison, An Address Delivered Before the Free People of Color, in Philadelphia, New-York, and Other Cities, During the Month of June, 1831 (Boston, 1831), 22; Lott Gary to Rev. Dr. [William] Staughton, Mar. 13, 1821, cited in Adelaide Cromwell Hill and Martin Kilson, eds., Apropos of Africa (London, 1969), 81.
118. African Repository 12 (Jun. 1836): 185; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 15; African Repository 9 (Sep. 1833): 196-99; Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, 5; African Repository 14 (Sep. 1838): 255-62; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jan. 1839): 27-28; The Colonizationist, Aug. 1833, 107. For other criticisms of the missionary objectives of the colonization society, see: Mrs. [Lydia Maria] Child, Anti-Slavery Catechism (Newburyport, MA, 1836), 28; William Lloyd Garrison, An Address Delivered Before the Free People of Color, in Philadelphia, New-York, and Other Cities, During the Month of June, 1831 (Boston, 1831), 22; Lott Gary to Rev. Dr. [William] Staughton, Mar. 13, 1821, cited in Adelaide Cromwell Hill and Martin Kilson, eds., Apropos of Africa (London, 1969), 81.
119. African Repository 12 (Jun. 1836): 185; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 15; African Repository 9 (Sep. 1833): 196-99; Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, 5; African Repository 14 (Sep. 1838): 255-62; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jan. 1839): 27-28; The Colonizationist, Aug. 1833, 107. For other criticisms of the missionary objectives of the colonization society, see: Mrs. [Lydia Maria] Child, Anti-Slavery Catechism (Newburyport, MA, 1836), 28; William Lloyd Garrison, An Address Delivered Before the Free People of Color, in Philadelphia, New-York, and Other Cities, During the Month of June, 1831 (Boston, 1831), 22; Lott Gary to Rev. Dr. [William] Staughton, Mar. 13, 1821, cited in Adelaide Cromwell Hill and Martin Kilson, eds., Apropos of Africa (London, 1969), 81.
120. African Repository 12 (Jun. 1836): 185; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 15; African Repository 9 (Sep. 1833): 196-99; Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, 5; African Repository 14 (Sep. 1838): 255-62; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jan. 1839): 27-28; The Colonizationist, Aug. 1833, 107. For other criticisms of the missionary objectives of the colonization society, see: Mrs. [Lydia Maria] Child, Anti-Slavery Catechism (Newburyport, MA, 1836), 28; William Lloyd Garrison, An Address Delivered Before the Free People of Color, in Philadelphia, New-York, and Other Cities, During the Month of June, 1831 (Boston, 1831), 22; Lott Gary to Rev. Dr. [William] Staughton, Mar. 13, 1821, cited in Adelaide Cromwell Hill and Martin Kilson, eds., Apropos of Africa (London, 1969), 81.
121. African Repository 12 (Jun. 1836): 185; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 15; African Repository 9 (Sep. 1833): 196-99; Minutes of the Fourth Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Colour, 5; African Repository 14 (Sep. 1838): 255-62; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jan. 1839): 27-28; The Colonizationist, Aug. 1833, 107. For other criticisms of the missionary objectives of the colonization society, see: Mrs. [Lydia Maria] Child, Anti-Slavery Catechism (Newburyport, MA, 1836), 28; William Lloyd Garrison, An Address Delivered Before the Free People of Color, in Philadelphia, New-York, and Other Cities, During the Month of June, 1831 (Boston, 1831), 22; Lott Gary to Rev. Dr. [William] Staughton, Mar. 13, 1821, cited in Adelaide Cromwell Hill and Martin Kilson, eds., Apropos of Africa (London, 1969), 81.
122. Freeman Awake! Would you sustain the Union; preserve order, tranquility and Christian feeling in your respective churches and congregations; and secure peace and happiness around your domestic firesides? . . . (Philadelphia: n.p., 1832), 17. This inconsistency led British abolitionist Charles Stuart to wonder how free blacks could at one moment be "declared as a body, to be little better than devils in the United States," while at the next "be commuted, by mere transportation to Africa, into almost angels!" Charles Stuart, Remarks on the Colony of Liberia and the American Colonization Society . . . (London, 1832), 7, cited in Blacken, Building an Antislavery Wall, 57.
123. Freeman Awake! Would you sustain the Union; preserve order, tranquility and Christian feeling in your respective churches and congregations; and secure peace and happiness around your domestic firesides? . . . (Philadelphia: n.p., 1832), 17. This inconsistency led British abolitionist Charles Stuart to wonder how free blacks could at one moment be "declared as a body, to be little better than devils in the United States," while at the next "be commuted, by mere transportation to Africa, into almost angels!" Charles Stuart, Remarks on the Colony of Liberia and the American Colonization Society . . . (London, 1832), 7, cited in Blacken, Building an Antislavery Wall, 57.
124. Freeman Awake! Would you sustain the Union; preserve order, tranquility and Christian feeling in your respective churches and congregations; and secure peace and happiness around your domestic firesides? . . . (Philadelphia: n.p., 1832), 17. This inconsistency led British abolitionist Charles Stuart to wonder how free blacks could at one moment be "declared as a body, to be little better than devils in the United States," while at the next "be commuted, by mere transportation to Africa, into almost angels!" Charles Stuart, Remarks on the Colony of Liberia and the American Colonization Society . . . (London, 1832), 7, cited in Blacken, Building an Antislavery Wall, 57.
125. Maryland Colonization Journal, reprinted in the Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jan. 1839): 15-16; Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 1; see also Tyson, Discourse Before the Young Men's Colonization Society. In another ironic twist in this argument, colonizationists commonly suggested that if African American emigrants proved their mettle, then both white colonizationists and black colonists would be crowned with laurels of success; but if the experiment failed, the blame rested solely on those emigrants who proved "idle, untoward, or vicious." In short, white colonizationists could claim the rewards of manly colonizing in which they only indirectly participated, but they exempted themselves from the failures that often accompanied such supposedly masculine adventures. Colonization Herald 1 (Jul. 4, 1835): 25.
126. Maryland Colonization Journal, reprinted in the Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jan. 1839): 15-16; Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 1; see also Tyson, Discourse Before the Young Men's Colonization Society. In another ironic twist in this argument, colonizationists commonly suggested that if African American emigrants proved their mettle, then both white colonizationists and black colonists would be crowned with laurels of success; but if the experiment failed, the blame rested solely on those emigrants who proved "idle, untoward, or vicious." In short, white colonizationists could claim the rewards of manly colonizing in which they only indirectly participated, but they exempted themselves from the failures that often accompanied such supposedly masculine adventures. Colonization Herald 1 (Jul. 4, 1835): 25.
127. Maryland Colonization Journal, reprinted in the Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jan. 1839): 15-16; Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 1; see also Tyson, Discourse Before the Young Men's Colonization Society. In another ironic twist in this argument, colonizationists commonly suggested that if African American emigrants proved their mettle, then both white colonizationists and black colonists would be crowned with laurels of success; but if the experiment failed, the blame rested solely on those emigrants who proved "idle, untoward, or vicious." In short, white colonizationists could claim the rewards of manly colonizing in which they only indirectly participated, but they exempted themselves from the failures that often accompanied such supposedly masculine adventures. Colonization Herald 1 (Jul. 4, 1835): 25.
128. Maryland Colonization Journal, reprinted in the Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jan. 1839): 15-16; Colonization Herald 1 (Apr. 4, 1835): 1; see also Tyson, Discourse Before the Young Men's Colonization Society. In another ironic twist in this argument, colonizationists commonly suggested that if African American emigrants proved their mettle, then both white colonizationists and black colonists would be crowned with laurels of success; but if the experiment failed, the blame rested solely on those emigrants who proved "idle, untoward, or vicious." In short, white colonizationists could claim the rewards of manly colonizing in which they only indirectly participated, but they exempted themselves from the failures that often accompanied such supposedly masculine adventures. Colonization Herald 1 (Jul. 4, 1835): 25.
129. Roy Harvey Pearce, Savagism and Civilization: A Study of the Indian and the American Mind (Baltimore, 1965); George W. Stocking, Jr., Victorian Anthropology (New York, 1987); Bederman, Manliness and Civilization.
130. Roy Harvey Pearce, Savagism and Civilization: A Study of the Indian and the American Mind (Baltimore, 1965); George W. Stocking, Jr., Victorian Anthropology (New York, 1987); Bederman, Manliness and Civilization.
131. Roy Harvey Pearce, Savagism and Civilization: A Study of the Indian and the American Mind (Baltimore, 1965); George W. Stocking, Jr., Victorian Anthropology (New York, 1987); Bederman, Manliness and Civilization.
132. Isaac V. Brown, Memoirs of the Rev. Robert Finley, D.D. . . . , 2nd ed. (New Brunswick, N.J., 1819), 39, 83-96, quoted in Staudenraus, African Colonization Movement, 21; Alexander T. McGill, The Hand of God with the Black Race. A Discourse Delivered before the Pennsylvania Colonization Society (Philadelphia, 1862), 11-12; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 21; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Apr. 1839): 159-60; "Circular of the Ladies Liberia School Association," Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jun. 1839): 266; The Colonizationist, May 1833, 42-43; Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't l a Woman? : Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York, 1985), chap. 1. Colonizationists seemed oblivious to the fact that Southern slavery was producing its own share of sorrowful mothers, forcing slave women to long for the return of their absent sons and daughters, and to fear even further separation of slave families if widespread expatriation to Africa was adopted. Northern colonizationists thus displaced their anti-slavery arguments toward a distant and gendered (feminine) continent, rather than toward the wrongs of Southern slaveholders. Black emigrationist Martin Delany insisted upon referring to Africa as the "fatherland"; perhaps Delany was responding to this white colonizationist discourse. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, MA, 1993), 23-26.
133. Isaac V. Brown, Memoirs of the Rev. Robert Finley, D.D. . . . , 2nd ed. (New Brunswick, N.J., 1819), 39, 83-96, quoted in Staudenraus, African Colonization Movement, 21; Alexander T. McGill, The Hand of God with the Black Race. A Discourse Delivered before the Pennsylvania Colonization Society (Philadelphia, 1862), 11-12; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 21; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Apr. 1839): 159-60; "Circular of the Ladies Liberia School Association," Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jun. 1839): 266; The Colonizationist, May 1833, 42-43; Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't l a Woman? : Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York, 1985), chap. 1. Colonizationists seemed oblivious to the fact that Southern slavery was producing its own share of sorrowful mothers, forcing slave women to long for the return of their absent sons and daughters, and to fear even further separation of slave families if widespread expatriation to Africa was adopted. Northern colonizationists thus displaced their anti-slavery arguments toward a distant and gendered (feminine) continent, rather than toward the wrongs of Southern slaveholders. Black emigrationist Martin Delany insisted upon referring to Africa as the "fatherland"; perhaps Delany was responding to this white colonizationist discourse. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, MA, 1993), 23-26.
134. Isaac V. Brown, Memoirs of the Rev. Robert Finley, D.D. . . . , 2nd ed. (New Brunswick, N.J., 1819), 39, 83-96, quoted in Staudenraus, African Colonization Movement, 21; Alexander T. McGill, The Hand of God with the Black Race. A Discourse Delivered before the Pennsylvania Colonization Society (Philadelphia, 1862), 11-12; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 21; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Apr. 1839): 159-60; "Circular of the Ladies Liberia School Association," Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jun. 1839): 266; The Colonizationist, May 1833, 42-43; Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't l a Woman? : Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York, 1985), chap. 1. Colonizationists seemed oblivious to the fact that Southern slavery was producing its own share of sorrowful mothers, forcing slave women to long for the return of their absent sons and daughters, and to fear even further separation of slave families if widespread expatriation to Africa was adopted. Northern colonizationists thus displaced their anti-slavery arguments toward a distant and gendered (feminine) continent, rather than toward the wrongs of Southern slaveholders. Black emigrationist Martin Delany insisted upon referring to Africa as the "fatherland"; perhaps Delany was responding to this white colonizationist discourse. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, MA, 1993), 23-26.
135. Isaac V. Brown, Memoirs of the Rev. Robert Finley, D.D. . . . , 2nd ed. (New Brunswick, N.J., 1819), 39, 83-96, quoted in Staudenraus, African Colonization Movement, 21; Alexander T. McGill, The Hand of God with the Black Race. A Discourse Delivered before the Pennsylvania Colonization Society (Philadelphia, 1862), 11-12; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 21; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Apr. 1839): 159-60; "Circular of the Ladies Liberia School Association," Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jun. 1839): 266; The Colonizationist, May 1833, 42-43; Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't l a Woman? : Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York, 1985), chap. 1. Colonizationists seemed oblivious to the fact that Southern slavery was producing its own share of sorrowful mothers, forcing slave women to long for the return of their absent sons and daughters, and to fear even further separation of slave families if widespread expatriation to Africa was adopted. Northern colonizationists thus displaced their anti-slavery arguments toward a distant and gendered (feminine) continent, rather than toward the wrongs of Southern slaveholders. Black emigrationist Martin Delany insisted upon referring to Africa as the "fatherland"; perhaps Delany was responding to this white colonizationist discourse. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, MA, 1993), 23-26.
136. Isaac V. Brown, Memoirs of the Rev. Robert Finley, D.D. . . . , 2nd ed. (New Brunswick, N.J., 1819), 39, 83-96, quoted in Staudenraus, African Colonization Movement, 21; Alexander T. McGill, The Hand of God with the Black Race. A Discourse Delivered before the Pennsylvania Colonization Society (Philadelphia, 1862), 11-12; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 21; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Apr. 1839): 159-60; "Circular of the Ladies Liberia School Association," Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jun. 1839): 266; The Colonizationist, May 1833, 42-43; Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't l a Woman? : Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York, 1985), chap. 1. Colonizationists seemed oblivious to the fact that Southern slavery was producing its own share of sorrowful mothers, forcing slave women to long for the return of their absent sons and daughters, and to fear even further separation of slave families if widespread expatriation to Africa was adopted. Northern colonizationists thus displaced their anti-slavery arguments toward a distant and gendered (feminine) continent, rather than toward the wrongs of Southern slaveholders. Black emigrationist Martin Delany insisted upon referring to Africa as the "fatherland"; perhaps Delany was responding to this white colonizationist discourse. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, MA, 1993), 23-26.
137. Isaac V. Brown, Memoirs of the Rev. Robert Finley, D.D. . . . , 2nd ed. (New Brunswick, N.J., 1819), 39, 83-96, quoted in Staudenraus, African Colonization Movement, 21; Alexander T. McGill, The Hand of God with the Black Race. A Discourse Delivered before the Pennsylvania Colonization Society (Philadelphia, 1862), 11-12; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 21; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Apr. 1839): 159-60; "Circular of the Ladies Liberia School Association," Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jun. 1839): 266; The Colonizationist, May 1833, 42-43; Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't l a Woman? : Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York, 1985), chap. 1. Colonizationists seemed oblivious to the fact that Southern slavery was producing its own share of sorrowful mothers, forcing slave women to long for the return of their absent sons and daughters, and to fear even further separation of slave families if widespread expatriation to Africa was adopted. Northern colonizationists thus displaced their anti-slavery arguments toward a distant and gendered (feminine) continent, rather than toward the wrongs of Southern slaveholders. Black emigrationist Martin Delany insisted upon referring to Africa as the "fatherland"; perhaps Delany was responding to this white colonizationist discourse. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, MA, 1993), 23-26.
138. Isaac V. Brown, Memoirs of the Rev. Robert Finley, D.D. . . . , 2nd ed. (New Brunswick, N.J., 1819), 39, 83-96, quoted in Staudenraus, African Colonization Movement, 21; Alexander T. McGill, The Hand of God with the Black Race. A Discourse Delivered before the Pennsylvania Colonization Society (Philadelphia, 1862), 11-12; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 21; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Apr. 1839): 159-60; "Circular of the Ladies Liberia School Association," Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jun. 1839): 266; The Colonizationist, May 1833, 42-43; Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't l a Woman? : Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York, 1985), chap. 1. Colonizationists seemed oblivious to the fact that Southern slavery was producing its own share of sorrowful mothers, forcing slave women to long for the return of their absent sons and daughters, and to fear even further separation of slave families if widespread expatriation to Africa was adopted. Northern colonizationists thus displaced their anti-slavery arguments toward a distant and gendered (feminine) continent, rather than toward the wrongs of Southern slaveholders. Black emigrationist Martin Delany insisted upon referring to Africa as the "fatherland"; perhaps Delany was responding to this white colonizationist discourse. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, MA, 1993), 23-26.
139. Isaac V. Brown, Memoirs of the Rev. Robert Finley, D.D. . . . , 2nd ed. (New Brunswick, N.J., 1819), 39, 83-96, quoted in Staudenraus, African Colonization Movement, 21; Alexander T. McGill, The Hand of God with the Black Race. A Discourse Delivered before the Pennsylvania Colonization Society (Philadelphia, 1862), 11-12; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 21; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Apr. 1839): 159-60; "Circular of the Ladies Liberia School Association," Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jun. 1839): 266; The Colonizationist, May 1833, 42-43; Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't l a Woman? : Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York, 1985), chap. 1. Colonizationists seemed oblivious to the fact that Southern slavery was producing its own share of sorrowful mothers, forcing slave women to long for the return of their absent sons and daughters, and to fear even further separation of slave families if widespread expatriation to Africa was adopted. Northern colonizationists thus displaced their anti-slavery arguments toward a distant and gendered (feminine) continent, rather than toward the wrongs of Southern slaveholders. Black emigrationist Martin Delany insisted upon referring to Africa as the "fatherland"; perhaps Delany was responding to this white colonizationist discourse. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, MA, 1993), 23-26.
140. Isaac V. Brown, Memoirs of the Rev. Robert Finley, D.D. . . . , 2nd ed. (New Brunswick, N.J., 1819), 39, 83-96, quoted in Staudenraus, African Colonization Movement, 21; Alexander T. McGill, The Hand of God with the Black Race. A Discourse Delivered before the Pennsylvania Colonization Society (Philadelphia, 1862), 11-12; American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 21; Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Apr. 1839): 159-60; "Circular of the Ladies Liberia School Association," Colonization Herald n.s. 1 (Jun. 1839): 266; The Colonizationist, May 1833, 42-43; Deborah Gray White, Ar'n't l a Woman? : Female Slaves in the Plantation South (New York, 1985), chap. 1. Colonizationists seemed oblivious to the fact that Southern slavery was producing its own share of sorrowful mothers, forcing slave women to long for the return of their absent sons and daughters, and to fear even further separation of slave families if widespread expatriation to Africa was adopted. Northern colonizationists thus displaced their anti-slavery arguments toward a distant and gendered (feminine) continent, rather than toward the wrongs of Southern slaveholders. Black emigrationist Martin Delany insisted upon referring to Africa as the "fatherland"; perhaps Delany was responding to this white colonizationist discourse. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, MA, 1993), 23-26.
141. Rebecca Stott, "The Dark Continent: Africa as Female Body in Haggard's Adventure Fiction," Feminist Review 32 (1989): 69-89; Patrick Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830-1914 (Ithaca, 1988), 190; Morton Cohen, Rider Haggard: His Life and Works (London, 1960); Ann Laura Stoler, "Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Gender,
142. Rebecca Stott, "The Dark Continent: Africa as Female Body in Haggard's Adventure Fiction," Feminist Review 32 (1989): 69-89; Patrick Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830-1914 (Ithaca, 1988), 190; Morton Cohen, Rider Haggard: His Life and Works (London, 1960); Ann Laura Stoler, "Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Gender, Race, and Morality in Colonial Asia," in Micaela di Leonardo, ed., Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991 ), 51-101. For other useful works, see Sander Gilman, "The Hottentot and the Prostitute: Toward and Iconography of Female Sexuality," in Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca, 1985), 76-108; Edward Said, Orientalism (New York, 1978), 207; Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill, 1968); and Richard C. Trexler, Sex and Conquest: Gendered Violence, Political Order, and the European Conquest of the Americas (Ithaca, 1995). A related but more problematic study is Annette Kolodny's The Lay of the Land (Chapel Hill, 1976).
143. Rebecca Stott, "The Dark Continent: Africa as Female Body in Haggard's Adventure Fiction," Feminist Review 32 (1989): 69-89; Patrick Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830-1914 (Ithaca, 1988), 190; Morton Cohen, Rider Haggard: His Life and Works (London, 1960); Ann Laura Stoler, "Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Gender, Race, and Morality in Colonial Asia," in Micaela di Leonardo, ed., Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991 ), 51-101. For other useful works, see Sander Gilman, "The Hottentot and the Prostitute: Toward and Iconography of Female Sexuality," in Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca, 1985), 76-108; Edward Said, Orientalism (New York, 1978), 207; Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill, 1968); and Richard C. Trexler, Sex and Conquest: Gendered Violence, Political Order, and the European Conquest of the Americas (Ithaca, 1995). A related but more problematic study is Annette Kolodny's The Lay of the Land (Chapel Hill, 1976).
144. Rebecca Stott, "The Dark Continent: Africa as Female Body in Haggard's Adventure Fiction," Feminist Review 32 (1989): 69-89; Patrick Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830-1914 (Ithaca, 1988), 190; Morton Cohen, Rider Haggard: His Life and Works (London, 1960); Ann Laura Stoler, "Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Gender, Race, and Morality in Colonial Asia," in Micaela di Leonardo, ed., Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991 ), 51-101. For other useful works, see Sander Gilman, "The Hottentot and the Prostitute: Toward and Iconography of Female Sexuality," in Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca, 1985), 76-108; Edward Said, Orientalism (New York, 1978), 207; Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill, 1968); and Richard C. Trexler, Sex and Conquest: Gendered Violence, Political Order, and the European Conquest of the Americas (Ithaca, 1995). A related but more problematic study is Annette Kolodny's The Lay of the Land (Chapel Hill, 1976).
145. Rebecca Stott, "The Dark Continent: Africa as Female Body in Haggard's Adventure Fiction," Feminist Review 32 (1989): 69-89; Patrick Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830-1914 (Ithaca, 1988), 190; Morton Cohen, Rider Haggard: His Life and Works (London, 1960); Ann Laura Stoler, "Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Gender, Race, and Morality in Colonial Asia," in Micaela di Leonardo, ed., Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991 ), 51-101. For other useful works, see Sander Gilman, "The Hottentot and the Prostitute: Toward and Iconography of Female Sexuality," in Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca, 1985), 76-108; Edward Said, Orientalism (New York, 1978), 207; Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill, 1968); and Richard C. Trexler, Sex and Conquest: Gendered Violence, Political Order, and the European Conquest of the Americas (Ithaca, 1995). A related but more problematic study is Annette Kolodny's The Lay of the Land (Chapel Hill, 1976).
146. Rebecca Stott, "The Dark Continent: Africa as Female Body in Haggard's Adventure Fiction," Feminist Review 32 (1989): 69-89; Patrick Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830-1914 (Ithaca, 1988), 190; Morton Cohen, Rider Haggard: His Life and Works (London, 1960); Ann Laura Stoler, "Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Gender, Race, and Morality in Colonial Asia," in Micaela di Leonardo, ed., Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991 ), 51-101. For other useful works, see Sander Gilman, "The Hottentot and the Prostitute: Toward and Iconography of Female Sexuality," in Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca, 1985), 76-108; Edward Said, Orientalism (New York, 1978), 207; Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill, 1968); and Richard C. Trexler, Sex and Conquest: Gendered Violence, Political Order, and the European Conquest of the Americas (Ithaca, 1995). A related but more problematic study is Annette Kolodny's The Lay of the Land (Chapel Hill, 1976).
147. Rebecca Stott, "The Dark Continent: Africa as Female Body in Haggard's Adventure Fiction," Feminist Review 32 (1989): 69-89; Patrick Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830-1914 (Ithaca, 1988), 190; Morton Cohen, Rider Haggard: His Life and Works (London, 1960); Ann Laura Stoler, "Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Gender, Race, and Morality in Colonial Asia," in Micaela di Leonardo, ed., Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991 ), 51-101. For other useful works, see Sander Gilman, "The Hottentot and the Prostitute: Toward and Iconography of Female Sexuality," in Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca, 1985), 76-108; Edward Said, Orientalism (New York, 1978), 207; Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill, 1968); and Richard C. Trexler, Sex and Conquest: Gendered Violence, Political Order, and the European Conquest of the Americas (Ithaca, 1995). A related but more problematic study is Annette Kolodny's The Lay of the Land (Chapel Hill, 1976).
148. Rebecca Stott, "The Dark Continent: Africa as Female Body in Haggard's Adventure Fiction," Feminist Review 32 (1989): 69-89; Patrick Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830-1914 (Ithaca, 1988), 190; Morton Cohen, Rider Haggard: His Life and Works (London, 1960); Ann Laura Stoler, "Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Gender, Race, and Morality in Colonial Asia," in Micaela di Leonardo, ed., Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991 ), 51-101. For other useful works, see Sander Gilman, "The Hottentot and the Prostitute: Toward and Iconography of Female Sexuality," in Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca, 1985), 76-108; Edward Said, Orientalism (New York, 1978), 207; Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill, 1968); and Richard C. Trexler, Sex and Conquest: Gendered Violence, Political Order, and the European Conquest of the Americas (Ithaca, 1995). A related but more problematic study is Annette Kolodny's The Lay of the Land (Chapel Hill, 1976).
149. Rebecca Stott, "The Dark Continent: Africa as Female Body in Haggard's Adventure Fiction," Feminist Review 32 (1989): 69-89; Patrick Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830-1914 (Ithaca, 1988), 190; Morton Cohen, Rider Haggard: His Life and Works (London, 1960); Ann Laura Stoler, "Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Gender, Race, and Morality in Colonial Asia," in Micaela di Leonardo, ed., Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era (Berkeley, 1991 ), 51-101. For other useful works, see Sander Gilman, "The Hottentot and the Prostitute: Toward and Iconography of Female Sexuality," in Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca, 1985), 76-108; Edward Said, Orientalism (New York, 1978), 207; Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill, 1968); and Richard C. Trexler, Sex and Conquest: Gendered Violence, Political Order, and the European Conquest of the Americas (Ithaca, 1995). A related but more problematic study is Annette Kolodny's The Lay of the Land (Chapel Hill, 1976).
150. David Brion Davis, "Some Themes of Counter-Subversion: An Analysis of Anti-Masonic, Anti-Catholic, and Anti-Mormon Literature," Mississippi Volley Historical Review 47 (1960): 205-24; Charles Rosenberg in "Sexuality, Class and Role in Nineteenth-Century America," American Quarterly 35 (1973); Carroll Smith Rosenberg, "Sex as Symbol in Victorian Purity: An Ethnohistorical Analysis of Jacksonian America," American Journal of Sociology 84 (1984): supplement, 212-47; Smith Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York, 1985), 90-108; Norma Basch, "Marriage, Morals, and Politics in the Election of 1828," Journal of American History 80 (1993): 890-913.
151. David Brion Davis, "Some Themes of Counter-Subversion: An Analysis of Anti-Masonic, Anti-Catholic, and Anti-Mormon Literature," Mississippi Volley Historical Review 47 (1960): 205-24; Charles Rosenberg in "Sexuality, Class and Role in Nineteenth-Century America," American Quarterly 35 (1973); Carroll Smith Rosenberg, "Sex as Symbol in Victorian Purity: An Ethnohistorical Analysis of Jacksonian America," American Journal of Sociology 84 (1984): supplement, 212-47; Smith Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York, 1985), 90-108; Norma Basch, "Marriage, Morals, and Politics in the Election of 1828," Journal of American History 80 (1993): 890-913.
152. David Brion Davis, "Some Themes of Counter-Subversion: An Analysis of Anti-Masonic, Anti-Catholic, and Anti-Mormon Literature," Mississippi Volley Historical Review 47 (1960): 205-24; Charles Rosenberg in "Sexuality, Class and Role in Nineteenth-Century America," American Quarterly 35 (1973); Carroll Smith Rosenberg, "Sex as Symbol in Victorian Purity: An Ethnohistorical Analysis of Jacksonian America," American Journal of Sociology 84 (1984): supplement, 212-47; Smith Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York, 1985), 90-108; Norma Basch, "Marriage, Morals, and Politics in the Election of 1828," Journal of American History 80 (1993): 890-913.
153. David Brion Davis, "Some Themes of Counter-Subversion: An Analysis of Anti-Masonic, Anti-Catholic, and Anti-Mormon Literature," Mississippi Volley Historical Review 47 (1960): 205-24; Charles Rosenberg in "Sexuality, Class and Role in Nineteenth-Century America," American Quarterly 35 (1973); Carroll Smith Rosenberg, "Sex as Symbol in Victorian Purity: An Ethnohistorical Analysis of Jacksonian America," American Journal of Sociology 84 (1984): supplement, 212-47; Smith Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York, 1985), 90-108; Norma Basch, "Marriage, Morals, and Politics in the Election of 1828," Journal of American History 80 (1993): 890-913.
154. David Brion Davis, "Some Themes of Counter-Subversion: An Analysis of Anti-Masonic, Anti-Catholic, and Anti-Mormon Literature," Mississippi Volley Historical Review 47 (1960): 205-24; Charles Rosenberg in "Sexuality, Class and Role in Nineteenth-Century America," American Quarterly 35 (1973); Carroll Smith Rosenberg, "Sex as Symbol in Victorian Purity: An Ethnohistorical Analysis of Jacksonian America," American Journal of Sociology 84 (1984): supplement, 212-47; Smith Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York, 1985), 90-108; Norma Basch, "Marriage, Morals, and Politics in the Election of 1828," Journal of American History 80 (1993): 890-913.
155. Phrases such as "social intercourse," "intimate union," "social equality," and others became euphemisms for the concept of amalgamation. The term "miscegenation" was not coined until the Civil War years, when the Democrats invented the term as a political attack on Lincoln during the election of 1864, to raise fears regarding the Emancipation Proclamation. See Martha Hodes, "Miscegenation," Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History, edited by Jack Salzman, et al. (New York, 1996), vol. 4, 813-15.
156. Freeman Awake!, 21; Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society, 12; Oliver Bolokitten, Esq. [pseud.], A Sojourn in the City of Amalgamation, in the Year of Our Lord 19 - (New York, 1835); Lorman Ratner, Powder Keg: Northern Opposition to the Antislavery Movement (New York, 1968), 14, 24.
157. Freeman Awake!, 21; Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society, 12; Oliver Bolokitten, Esq. [pseud.], A Sojourn in the City of Amalgamation, in the Year of Our Lord 19 - (New York, 1835); Lorman Ratner, Powder Keg: Northern Opposition to the Antislavery Movement (New York, 1968), 14, 24.
158. Freeman Awake!, 21; Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society, 12; Oliver Bolokitten, Esq. [pseud.], A Sojourn in the City of Amalgamation, in the Year of Our Lord 19 - (New York, 1835); Lorman Ratner, Powder Keg: Northern Opposition to the Antislavery Movement (New York, 1968), 14, 24.
159. Freeman Awake!, 21; Carey, Letters on the Colonization Society, 12; Oliver Bolokitten, Esq. [pseud.], A Sojourn in the City of Amalgamation, in the Year of Our Lord 19 - (New York, 1835); Lorman Ratner, Powder Keg: Northern Opposition to the Antislavery Movement (New York, 1968), 14, 24.
160. With the North's largest free black population, it was not unusual for sexual relationships between blacks and whites to appear in the records of Philadelphia's public agencies without provoking outrage or violence. See Guardians of the Poor, Committee on Bastardy, 1821-1825, Philadelphia City Archives; Guardians of the Poor, Alms House Hospital Register of Births, Lying-in Department, Philadelphia Alms House, 6 vols., vol. 1, 1808-1829; and the Public Ledger, 1836-60. In one of the earliest pro-colonization publications, Thomas Branagan declared that he had "seen more white women married to, and deluded through the arts of seduction by negroes in one year in Philadelphia," than for the eight years he travelled in Africa, South America, the Caribbean, and the South. Thomas Branagan, Serious Remonstrances Addressed to the Citizens of the Northern States and Their Representatives (Philadelphia, 1805), 73.
161. With the North's largest free black population, it was not unusual for sexual relationships between blacks and whites to appear in the records of Philadelphia's public agencies without provoking outrage or violence. See Guardians of the Poor, Committee on Bastardy, 1821-1825, Philadelphia City Archives; Guardians of the Poor, Alms House Hospital Register of Births, Lying-in Department, Philadelphia Alms House, 6 vols., vol. 1, 1808-1829; and the Public Ledger, 1836-60. In one of the earliest pro-colonization publications, Thomas Branagan declared that he had "seen more white women married to, and deluded through the arts of seduction by negroes in one year in Philadelphia," than for the eight years he travelled in Africa, South America, the Caribbean, and the South. Thomas Branagan, Serious Remonstrances Addressed to the Citizens of the Northern States and Their Representatives (Philadelphia, 1805), 73.
162. With the North's largest free black population, it was not unusual for sexual relationships between blacks and whites to appear in the records of Philadelphia's public agencies without provoking outrage or violence. See Guardians of the Poor, Committee on Bastardy, 1821-1825, Philadelphia City Archives; Guardians of the Poor, Alms House Hospital Register of Births, Lying-in Department, Philadelphia Alms House, 6 vols., vol. 1, 1808-1829; and the Public Ledger, 1836-60. In one of the earliest pro-colonization publications, Thomas Branagan declared that he had "seen more white women married to, and deluded through the arts of seduction by negroes in one year in Philadelphia," than for the eight years he travelled in Africa, South America, the Caribbean, and the South. Thomas Branagan, Serious Remonstrances Addressed to the Citizens of the Northern States and Their Representatives (Philadelphia, 1805), 73.
163. With the North's largest free black population, it was not unusual for sexual relationships between blacks and whites to appear in the records of Philadelphia's public agencies without provoking outrage or violence. See Guardians of the Poor, Committee on Bastardy, 1821-1825, Philadelphia City Archives; Guardians of the Poor, Alms House Hospital Register of Births, Lying-in Department, Philadelphia Alms House, 6 vols., vol. 1, 1808-1829; and the Public Ledger, 1836-60. In one of the earliest pro-colonization publications, Thomas Branagan declared that he had "seen more white women married to, and deluded through the arts of seduction by negroes in one year in Philadelphia," than for the eight years he travelled in Africa, South America, the Caribbean, and the South. Thomas Branagan, Serious Remonstrances Addressed to the Citizens of the Northern States and Their Representatives (Philadelphia, 1805), 73.
164. Minutes and Proceedings of the First Annual Convention of the People of Color (Philadelphia, 1831), 15, reprinted in Bell, Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions.
165. Minutes and Proceedings of the First Annual Convention of the People of Color (Philadelphia, 1831), 15, reprinted in Bell, Minutes of the Proceedings of the National Negro Conventions.
166. [Robert Purvis,] Appeal of Forty Thousand Citizens, Threatened with Disfranchisement, to the People of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1838), reprinted in Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, vol. 1 (New York, 1951), 176-86; Colored American, January 27, 1838; January 30, 1841; May 8, 1841; Pennsylvania Freeman, March 22, 1838; National Enquirer, March 1, 1838; Liberator, April 14, 1832; Leon F. Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790-1860 (Chicago, 1961), 22; Edward Price, "The Black Voting Rights Issue in Pennsylvania, 1780-1900," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 100 (1976): 356-73; David McBride, "Black Protest Against Racial Politics: Gardiner, Hinton and Their Memorial of 1838," Pennsylvania History 46 (1979): 149-62.
167. [Robert Purvis,] Appeal of Forty Thousand Citizens, Threatened with Disfranchisement, to the People of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1838), reprinted in Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, vol. 1 (New York, 1951), 176-86; Colored American, January 27, 1838; January 30, 1841; May 8, 1841; Pennsylvania Freeman, March 22, 1838; National Enquirer, March 1, 1838; Liberator, April 14, 1832; Leon F. Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790-1860 (Chicago, 1961), 22; Edward Price, "The Black Voting Rights Issue in Pennsylvania, 1780-1900," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 100 (1976): 356-73; David McBride, "Black Protest Against Racial Politics: Gardiner, Hinton and Their Memorial of 1838," Pennsylvania History 46 (1979): 149-62.
168. [Robert Purvis,] Appeal of Forty Thousand Citizens, Threatened with Disfranchisement, to the People of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1838), reprinted in Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, vol. 1 (New York, 1951), 176-86; Colored American, January 27, 1838; January 30, 1841; May 8, 1841; Pennsylvania Freeman, March 22, 1838; National Enquirer, March 1, 1838; Liberator, April 14, 1832; Leon F. Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790-1860 (Chicago, 1961), 22; Edward Price, "The Black Voting Rights Issue in Pennsylvania, 1780-1900," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 100 (1976): 356-73; David McBride, "Black Protest Against Racial Politics: Gardiner, Hinton and Their Memorial of 1838," Pennsylvania History 46 (1979): 149-62.
169. [Robert Purvis,] Appeal of Forty Thousand Citizens, Threatened with Disfranchisement, to the People of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1838), reprinted in Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, vol. 1 (New York, 1951), 176-86; Colored American, January 27, 1838; January 30, 1841; May 8, 1841; Pennsylvania Freeman, March 22, 1838; National Enquirer, March 1, 1838; Liberator, April 14, 1832; Leon F. Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790-1860 (Chicago, 1961), 22; Edward Price, "The Black Voting Rights Issue in Pennsylvania, 1780-1900," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 100 (1976): 356-73; David McBride, "Black Protest Against Racial Politics: Gardiner, Hinton and Their Memorial of 1838," Pennsylvania History 46 (1979): 149-62.
170. [Robert Purvis,] Appeal of Forty Thousand Citizens, Threatened with Disfranchisement, to the People of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1838), reprinted in Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, vol. 1 (New York, 1951), 176-86; Colored American, January 27, 1838; January 30, 1841; May 8, 1841; Pennsylvania Freeman, March 22, 1838; National Enquirer, March 1, 1838; Liberator, April 14, 1832; Leon F. Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790-1860 (Chicago, 1961), 22; Edward Price, "The Black Voting Rights Issue in Pennsylvania, 1780-1900," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 100 (1976): 356-73; David McBride, "Black Protest Against Racial Politics: Gardiner, Hinton and Their Memorial of 1838," Pennsylvania History 46 (1979): 149-62.
171. [Robert Purvis,] Appeal of Forty Thousand Citizens, Threatened with Disfranchisement, to the People of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1838), reprinted in Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, vol. 1 (New York, 1951), 176-86; Colored American, January 27, 1838; January 30, 1841; May 8, 1841; Pennsylvania Freeman, March 22, 1838; National Enquirer, March 1, 1838; Liberator, April 14, 1832; Leon F. Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790-1860 (Chicago, 1961), 22; Edward Price, "The Black Voting Rights Issue in Pennsylvania, 1780-1900," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 100 (1976): 356-73; David McBride, "Black Protest Against Racial Politics: Gardiner, Hinton and Their Memorial of 1838," Pennsylvania History 46 (1979): 149-62.
172. [Robert Purvis,] Appeal of Forty Thousand Citizens, Threatened with Disfranchisement, to the People of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1838), reprinted in Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, vol. 1 (New York, 1951), 176-86; Colored American, January 27, 1838; January 30, 1841; May 8, 1841; Pennsylvania Freeman, March 22, 1838; National Enquirer, March 1, 1838; Liberator, April 14, 1832; Leon F. Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790-1860 (Chicago, 1961), 22; Edward Price, "The Black Voting Rights Issue in Pennsylvania, 1780-1900," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 100 (1976): 356-73; David McBride, "Black Protest Against Racial Politics: Gardiner, Hinton and Their Memorial of 1838," Pennsylvania History 46 (1979): 149-62.
173. [Robert Purvis,] Appeal of Forty Thousand Citizens, Threatened with Disfranchisement, to the People of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1838), reprinted in Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, vol. 1 (New York, 1951), 176-86; Colored American, January 27, 1838; January 30, 1841; May 8, 1841; Pennsylvania Freeman, March 22, 1838; National Enquirer, March 1, 1838; Liberator, April 14, 1832; Leon F. Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790-1860 (Chicago, 1961), 22; Edward Price, "The Black Voting Rights Issue in Pennsylvania, 1780-1900," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 100 (1976): 356-73; David McBride, "Black Protest Against Racial Politics: Gardiner, Hinton and Their Memorial of 1838," Pennsylvania History 46 (1979): 149-62.
174. [Robert Purvis,] Appeal of Forty Thousand Citizens, Threatened with Disfranchisement, to the People of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1838), reprinted in Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States, vol. 1 (New York, 1951), 176-86; Colored American, January 27, 1838; January 30, 1841; May 8, 1841; Pennsylvania Freeman, March 22, 1838; National Enquirer, March 1, 1838; Liberator, April 14, 1832; Leon F. Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790-1860 (Chicago, 1961), 22; Edward Price, "The Black Voting Rights Issue in Pennsylvania, 1780-1900," Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 100 (1976): 356-73; David McBride, "Black Protest Against Racial Politics: Gardiner, Hinton and Their Memorial of 1838," Pennsylvania History 46 (1979): 149-62.
175. Freeman Awake!, 11, 23. For a parallel development in the Reconstruction South, see Martha Hodes, "The Sexualization of Reconstruction Politics," Journal of the History of Sexuality 3 (1993): 402-16.
176. Freeman Awake!, 11, 23. For a parallel development in the Reconstruction South, see Martha Hodes, "The Sexualization of Reconstruction Politics," Journal of the History of Sexuality 3 (1993): 402-16.
177. American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 14; Pennsylvania Freeman, Mar. 15, 1838; Litwack, North of Slavery, 69.
178. American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 14; Pennsylvania Freeman, Mar. 15, 1838; Litwack, North of Slavery, 69.
179. American Colonization Society, First Annual Report, 14; Pennsylvania Freeman, Mar. 15, 1838; Litwack, North of Slavery, 69.
180. On Philadelphia race riots, see Nash, Forging Freedom, 273-76; John Runcie, " 'Hunting the Nigs' in Philadelphia: The Race Riots of August 1834," Pennsylvania History 39 (1972): 187-218. For New York City race riots, see Paul A. Gilje, The Road to Monocracy: Popular Disorder in New York City, 1763-1834 (Chapel Hill, 1987), 162-70; Linda K. Kerber, "Abolitionists and Amalgamators: The New York City Race Riots of 1834," New York History 48 (1967): 131-43. For anti-abolitionist riots, see Leonard L. Richards, "Gentlemen of Property and Standing" : Anti-Abolitionist Mobs in Jocksonian America (New York, 1970), 69; Bertram Wyatt-Brown, Lewis Tappan and the Evangelical War Against Slavery (Cleveland, 1969), 156-57, 163; Presbyterian, August 27, 1835;
181. On Philadelphia race riots, see Nash, Forging Freedom, 273-76; John Runcie, " 'Hunting the Nigs' in Philadelphia: The Race Riots of August 1834," Pennsylvania History 39 (1972): 187-218. For New York City race riots, see Paul A. Gilje, The Road to Monocracy: Popular Disorder in New York City, 1763-1834 (Chapel Hill, 1987), 162-70; Linda K. Kerber, "Abolitionists and Amalgamators: The New York City Race Riots of 1834," New York History 48 (1967): 131-43. For anti-abolitionist riots, see Leonard L. Richards, "Gentlemen of Property and Standing" : Anti-Abolitionist Mobs in Jocksonian America (New York, 1970), 69; Bertram Wyatt-Brown, Lewis Tappan and the Evangelical War Against Slavery (Cleveland, 1969), 156-57, 163; Presbyterian, August 27, 1835;
182. On Philadelphia race riots, see Nash, Forging Freedom, 273-76; John Runcie, " 'Hunting the Nigs' in Philadelphia: The Race Riots of August 1834," Pennsylvania History 39 (1972): 187-218. For New York City race riots, see Paul A. Gilje, The Road to Monocracy: Popular Disorder in New York City, 1763-1834 (Chapel Hill, 1987), 162-70; Linda K. Kerber, "Abolitionists and Amalgamators: The New York City Race Riots of 1834," New York History 48 (1967): 131-43. For anti-abolitionist riots, see Leonard L. Richards, "Gentlemen of Property and Standing" : Anti-Abolitionist Mobs in Jocksonian America (New York, 1970), 69; Bertram Wyatt-Brown, Lewis Tappan and the Evangelical War Against Slavery (Cleveland, 1969), 156-57, 163; Presbyterian, August 27, 1835;
183. On Philadelphia race riots, see Nash, Forging Freedom, 273-76; John Runcie, " 'Hunting the Nigs' in Philadelphia: The Race Riots of August 1834," Pennsylvania History 39 (1972): 187-218. For New York City race riots, see Paul A. Gilje, The Road to Monocracy: Popular Disorder in New York City, 1763-1834 (Chapel Hill, 1987), 162-70; Linda K. Kerber, "Abolitionists and Amalgamators: The New York City Race Riots of 1834," New York History 48 (1967): 131-43. For anti-abolitionist riots, see Leonard L. Richards, "Gentlemen of Property and Standing" : Anti-Abolitionist Mobs in Jocksonian America (New York, 1970), 69; Bertram Wyatt-Brown, Lewis Tappan and the Evangelical War Against Slavery (Cleveland, 1969), 156-57, 163; Presbyterian, August 27, 1835;
184. On Philadelphia race riots, see Nash, Forging Freedom, 273-76; John Runcie, " 'Hunting the Nigs' in Philadelphia: The Race Riots of August 1834," Pennsylvania History 39 (1972): 187-218. For New York City race riots, see Paul A. Gilje, The Road to Monocracy: Popular Disorder in New York City, 1763-1834 (Chapel Hill, 1987), 162-70; Linda K. Kerber, "Abolitionists and Amalgamators: The New York City Race Riots of 1834," New York History 48 (1967): 131-43. For anti-abolitionist riots, see Leonard L. Richards, "Gentlemen of Property and Standing" : Anti-Abolitionist Mobs in Jocksonian America (New York, 1970), 69; Bertram Wyatt-Brown, Lewis Tappan and the Evangelical War Against Slavery (Cleveland, 1969), 156-57, 163; Presbyterian, August 27, 1835;
185. On Philadelphia race riots, see Nash, Forging Freedom, 273-76; John Runcie, " 'Hunting the Nigs' in Philadelphia: The Race Riots of August 1834," Pennsylvania History 39 (1972): 187-218. For New York City race riots, see Paul A. Gilje, The Road to Monocracy: Popular Disorder in New York City, 1763-1834 (Chapel Hill, 1987), 162-70; Linda K. Kerber, "Abolitionists and Amalgamators: The New York City Race Riots of 1834," New York History 48 (1967): 131-43. For anti-abolitionist riots, see Leonard L. Richards, "Gentlemen of Property and Standing" : Anti-Abolitionist Mobs in Jocksonian America (New York, 1970), 69; Bertram Wyatt-Brown, Lewis Tappan and the Evangelical War Against Slavery (Cleveland, 1969), 156-57, 163; Presbyterian, August 27, 1835;
186. On Philadelphia race riots, see Nash, Forging Freedom, 273-76; John Runcie, " 'Hunting the Nigs' in Philadelphia: The Race Riots of August 1834," Pennsylvania History 39 (1972): 187-218. For New York City race riots, see Paul A. Gilje, The Road to Monocracy: Popular Disorder in New York City, 1763-1834 (Chapel Hill, 1987), 162-70; Linda K. Kerber, "Abolitionists and Amalgamators: The New York City Race Riots of 1834," New York History 48 (1967): 131-43. For anti-abolitionist riots, see Leonard L. Richards, "Gentlemen of Property and Standing" : Anti-Abolitionist Mobs in Jocksonian America (New York, 1970), 69; Bertram Wyatt-Brown, Lewis Tappan and the Evangelical War Against Slavery (Cleveland, 1969), 156-57, 163; Presbyterian, August 27, 1835;
187. Hazard's Register of Pennsylvania, August 29, 1835.
188. See also, Leslie M. Harris, "From Abolitionist Amalgamators to 'Rulers of the Five Points': The Discourse of Interracial Sex and Reform in Antebellum New York City," in Martha Hodes, ed., Race, Love, Sex: Crossing Boundaries in North American History (New York, 1999). With these visible threats, it is hardly surprising that the number of black mutual benefit societies increased rapidly during the 1830s.
189. [Calvin Colton], Colonization and Abolition Contrasted (Philadelphia, 1839), 2, 5.
190. Protestant newspapers that supported colonization regularly published favorable accounts of anti-abolitionist gatherings and violent riots alongside endorsements of colonization society labors. Presbyterian, August 13, 27, 1835; Colton, Colonization and Abolition Contrasted, 2; Richards, "Gentlemen of Property and Standing", 30-37, 43-46; Litwack, North of Slavery, 20-24. See also Tyson, A Discourse Before the Young Men's Colonization Society; Jesse Burden, Remarks . . . in the Senate of Pennsylvania, on the Abolition Question (Philadelphia, 1838); William W. Sleigh, Abolitionism Exposed! (Philadelphia, 1838).
191. Protestant newspapers that supported colonization regularly published favorable accounts of anti-abolitionist gatherings and violent riots alongside endorsements of colonization society labors. Presbyterian, August 13, 27, 1835; Colton, Colonization and Abolition Contrasted, 2; Richards, "Gentlemen of Property and Standing", 30-37, 43-46; Litwack, North of Slavery, 20-24. See also Tyson, A Discourse Before the Young Men's Colonization Society; Jesse Burden, Remarks . . . in the Senate of Pennsylvania, on the Abolition Question (Philadelphia, 1838); William W. Sleigh, Abolitionism Exposed! (Philadelphia, 1838).
192. Protestant newspapers that supported colonization regularly published favorable accounts of anti-abolitionist gatherings and violent riots alongside endorsements of colonization society labors. Presbyterian, August 13, 27, 1835; Colton, Colonization and Abolition Contrasted, 2; Richards, "Gentlemen of Property and Standing", 30-37, 43-46; Litwack, North of Slavery, 20-24. See also Tyson, A Discourse Before the Young Men's Colonization Society; Jesse Burden, Remarks . . . in the Senate of Pennsylvania, on the Abolition Question (Philadelphia, 1838); William W. Sleigh, Abolitionism Exposed! (Philadelphia, 1838).
193. Protestant newspapers that supported colonization regularly published favorable accounts of anti-abolitionist gatherings and violent riots alongside endorsements of colonization society labors. Presbyterian, August 13, 27, 1835; Colton, Colonization and Abolition Contrasted, 2; Richards, "Gentlemen of Property and Standing", 30-37, 43-46; Litwack, North of Slavery, 20-24. See also Tyson, A Discourse Before the Young Men's Colonization Society; Jesse Burden, Remarks . . . in the Senate of Pennsylvania, on the Abolition Question (Philadelphia, 1838); William W. Sleigh, Abolitionism Exposed! (Philadelphia, 1838).
194. Protestant newspapers that supported colonization regularly published favorable accounts of anti-abolitionist gatherings and violent riots alongside endorsements of colonization society labors. Presbyterian, August 13, 27, 1835; Colton, Colonization and Abolition Contrasted, 2; Richards, "Gentlemen of Property and Standing", 30-37, 43-46; Litwack, North of Slavery, 20-24. See also Tyson, A Discourse Before the Young Men's Colonization Society; Jesse Burden, Remarks . . . in the Senate of Pennsylvania, on the Abolition Question (Philadelphia, 1838); William W. Sleigh, Abolitionism Exposed! (Philadelphia, 1838).
195. Protestant newspapers that supported colonization regularly published favorable accounts of anti-abolitionist gatherings and violent riots alongside endorsements of colonization society labors. Presbyterian, August 13, 27, 1835; Colton, Colonization and Abolition Contrasted, 2; Richards, "Gentlemen of Property and Standing", 30-37, 43-46; Litwack, North of Slavery, 20-24. See also Tyson, A Discourse Before the Young Men's Colonization Society; Jesse Burden, Remarks . . . in the Senate of Pennsylvania, on the Abolition Question (Philadelphia, 1838); William W. Sleigh, Abolitionism Exposed! (Philadelphia, 1838).
196. History of Pennsylvania Hall, Which VMS Destroyed by a Mob, on the 17th of May, 1838 (Philadelphia, 1838), 3-11, 136-43; Minute Book of the Board of Managers of the Pennsylvania Hall Association, 1837-1864, HSP; Sam Bass Warner, Jr., The Private City: Philadelphia in Three Periods of Its Growth (Philadelphia, 1968), 131-37; William N. Needles to Wendell P. Garrison, June 23, 1885, Dreer Collection, HSP.
197. History of Pennsylvania Hall, Which VMS Destroyed by a Mob, on the 17th of May, 1838 (Philadelphia, 1838), 3-11, 136-43; Minute Book of the Board of Managers of the Pennsylvania Hall Association, 1837-1864, HSP; Sam Bass Warner, Jr., The Private City: Philadelphia in Three Periods of Its Growth (Philadelphia, 1968), 131-37; William N. Needles to Wendell P. Garrison, June 23, 1885, Dreer Collection, HSP.
198. History of Pennsylvania Hall, Which VMS Destroyed by a Mob, on the 17th of May, 1838 (Philadelphia, 1838), 3-11, 136-43; Minute Book of the Board of Managers of the Pennsylvania Hall Association, 1837-1864, HSP; Sam Bass Warner, Jr., The Private City: Philadelphia in Three Periods of Its Growth (Philadelphia, 1968), 131-37; William N. Needles to Wendell P. Garrison, June 23, 1885, Dreer Collection, HSP.
199. History of Pennsylvania Hall, Which VMS Destroyed by a Mob, on the 17th of May, 1838 (Philadelphia, 1838), 3-11, 136-43; Minute Book of the Board of Managers of the Pennsylvania Hall Association, 1837-1864, HSP; Sam Bass Warner, Jr., The Private City: Philadelphia in Three Periods of Its Growth (Philadelphia, 1968), 131-37; William N. Needles to Wendell P. Garrison, June 23, 1885, Dreer Collection, HSP.
200. Diary of A. J. Pleasonton, May 17, 1838, HSP; Public Ledger, July 18, 1838, quoted in Warner, The Private City, 136-37; Pennsylvania Freeman, Nov. 1, 1838; Zip Coon], "Abolition Hall," (ca. 1850s), Library Company of Philadelphia, reprinted in Yellin, Women and Sisters, 49.
201. Diary of A. J. Pleasonton, May 17, 1838, HSP; Public Ledger, July 18, 1838, quoted in Warner, The Private City, 136-37; Pennsylvania Freeman, Nov. 1, 1838; Zip Coon], "Abolition Hall," (ca. 1850s), Library Company of Philadelphia, reprinted in Yellin, Women and Sisters, 49.
202. Diary of A. J. Pleasonton, May 17, 1838, HSP; Public Ledger, July 18, 1838, quoted in Warner, The Private City, 136-37; Pennsylvania Freeman, Nov. 1, 1838; Zip Coon], "Abolition Hall," (ca. 1850s), Library Company of Philadelphia, reprinted in Yellin, Women and Sisters, 49.
203. Diary of A. J. Pleasonton, May 17, 1838, HSP; Public Ledger, July 18, 1838, quoted in Warner, The Private City, 136-37; Pennsylvania Freeman, Nov. 1, 1838; Zip Coon], "Abolition Hall," (ca. 1850s), Library Company of Philadelphia, reprinted in Yellin, Women and Sisters, 49.
204. Diary of A. J. Pleasonton, May 17, 1838, HSP; Public Ledger, July 18, 1838, quoted in Warner, The Private City, 136-37; Pennsylvania Freeman, Nov. 1, 1838; [Zip Coon], "Abolition Hall," (ca. 1850s), Library Company of Philadelphia, reprinted in Yellin, Women and Sisters, 49.
205. Othniel A. Pendleton, Jr., "Slavery and the Evangelical Churches," Journal of Presbyterian History 25 (1947): 169, 172.
206. I explore this complex narrative in greater detail in my forthcoming book manuscript.
207. Lewis C. Holbert to William McLain, American Colonization Society, Sept. 7, 1847, in Carter G. Woodson, ed., The Mind of the Free Negro, As Reflected in Letters Written During the Crisis, 1800-1860 (Washington, D.C., 1926), 47 [spelling modernized].
208. Lewis C. Holbert to William McLain, American Colonization Society, Sept. 7, 1847, in Carter G. Woodson, ed., The Mind of the Free Negro, As Reflected in Letters Written During the Crisis, 1800-1860 (Washington, D.C., 1926), 47 [spelling modernized].
209. African Repository 27 (1851): 259-65; Wilson Jeremiah Moses, "Biographical Sketch of Augustus Washington," in Moses, Liberian Dreams, 181-83.
210. African Repository 27 (1851): 259-65; Wilson Jeremiah Moses, "Biographical Sketch of Augustus Washington," in Moses, Liberian Dreams, 181-83.
211. Freedom's Journal, March 18, 1829; Hill and Kilson, Apropos of Africa, 79 (Hill and Kilson indicate that Lott Carey's quotation was attributed to him, but they provide no citation for the quotation); Martin Robinson Delany, The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States (Philadelphia, 1852; reprint ed.: New York, 1969), 159-60, 205, 208.
212. Freedom's Journal, March 18, 1829; Hill and Kilson, Apropos of Africa, 79 (Hill and Kilson indicate that Lott Carey's quotation was attributed to him, but they provide no citation for the quotation); Martin Robinson Delany, The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States (Philadelphia, 1852; reprint ed.: New York, 1969), 159-60, 205, 208.
213. Freedom's Journal, March 18, 1829; Hill and Kilson, Apropos of Africa, 79 (Hill and Kilson indicate that Lott Carey's quotation was attributed to him, but they provide no citation for the quotation); Martin Robinson Delany, The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States (Philadelphia, 1852; reprint ed.: New York, 1969), 159-60, 205, 208.
214. Freedom's Journal, March 18, 1829; Hill and Kilson, Apropos of Africa, 79 (Hill and Kilson indicate that Lott Carey's quotation was attributed to him, but they provide no citation for the quotation); Martin Robinson Delany, The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States (Philadelphia, 1852; reprint ed.: New York, 1969), 159-60, 205, 208.
215. Prior to 1844, over twenty percent of the emigrants died within their first twelve months in Liberia; "Roll of Emigrants," 152-60; The Liberator, Aug. 20, 1831; Shick, Behold the Promised Land, 27, 50; Smith, Sojourners in Search of Freedom, 206-8; Kocher, "A Duty to America and Africa," 147.
216. Prior to 1844, over twenty percent of the emigrants died within their first twelve months in Liberia; "Roll of Emigrants," 152-60; The Liberator, Aug. 20, 1831; Shick, Behold the Promised Land, 27, 50; Smith, Sojourners in Search of Freedom, 206-8; Kocher, "A Duty to America and Africa," 147.
217. Prior to 1844, over twenty percent of the emigrants died within their first twelve months in Liberia; "Roll of Emigrants," 152-60; The Liberator, Aug. 20, 1831; Shick, Behold the Promised Land, 27, 50; Smith, Sojourners in Search of Freedom, 206-8; Kocher, "A Duty to America and Africa," 147.
218. Prior to 1844, over twenty percent of the emigrants died within their first twelve months in Liberia; "Roll of Emigrants," 152-60; The Liberator, Aug. 20, 1831; Shick, Behold the Promised Land, 27, 50; Smith, Sojourners in Search of Freedom, 206-8; Kocher, "A Duty to America and Africa," 147.
219. Prior to 1844, over twenty percent of the emigrants died within their first twelve months in Liberia; "Roll of Emigrants," 152-60; The Liberator, Aug. 20, 1831; Shick, Behold the Promised Land, 27, 50; Smith, Sojourners in Search of Freedom, 206-8; Kocher, "A Duty to America and Africa," 147.
220. Speech of H. Ford Douglass, in reply to Mr. J. M. Langston before the Emigration Convention, at Cleveland, Ohio, Delivered on the Evening of the 27th of August, 1854 (Chicago, 1854), reprinted in Aptheker, A Documentary History of the Negro People of the United States, 1:368; see also, Martin R. Delany, The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States.
221. Speech of H. Ford Douglass, in reply to Mr. J. M. Langston before the Emigration Convention, at Cleveland, Ohio, Delivered on the Evening of the 27th of August, 1854 (Chicago, 1854), reprinted in Aptheker, A Documentary History of the Negro People of the United States, 1:368; see also, Martin R. Delany, The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States.
222. Speech of H. Ford Douglass, in reply to Mr. J. M. Langston before the Emigration Convention, at Cleveland, Ohio, Delivered on the Evening of the 27th of August, 1854 (Chicago, 1854), reprinted in Aptheker, A Documentary History of the Negro People of the United States, 1:368; see also, Martin R. Delany, The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States.
223. Based on a comparison with a database of over 2,000 other women activists. Third Annual Report of the Ladies Liberia School Association (Philadelphia, 1835); Fourth Annual Report (1836) in the Colonization Herald 1 (May 28, 1836): 111-12; Ninth Annual Report of the Board of Managers of the Ladies Liberia School Association (Philadelphia, 1841 ).
224. Based on a comparison with a database of over 2,000 other women activists. Third Annual Report of the Ladies Liberia School Association (Philadelphia, 1835); Fourth Annual Report (1836) in the Colonization Herald 1 (May 28, 1836): 111-12; Ninth Annual Report of the Board of Managers of the Ladies Liberia School Association (Philadelphia, 1841 ).
225. Based on a comparison with a database of over 2,000 other women activists. Third Annual Report of the Ladies Liberia School Association (Philadelphia, 1835); Fourth Annual Report (1836) in the Colonization Herald 1 (May 28, 1836): 111-12; Ninth Annual Report of the Board of Managers of the Ladies Liberia School Association (Philadelphia, 1841 ).
226. Dorsey, "City of Brotherly Love," ch. 2 and 5.
227. African Repository 16 (Jul. 1. 1840): 202-205; Catharine Beecher, An Essay on Slavery and Abolitionism with Reference to the Duty of American Females (Philadelphia, 1837), 97-109; Kathryn Kish Sklar, Catharine Beecher: A Study in Domesticity (New Haven, 1973), 132-37; see also Colonization Herald 1 (Mar. 19, 1836): 93; 2 (Jul. 23, 1836): 127. On the connections between nineteenth-century politics and prizefighting, see Elliott J. Gorn, The Manly Art: Bare-Knuckle Prize Fighting in America (Ithaca, 1986), 125-27, 135.
228. African Repository 16 (Jul. 1. 1840): 202-205; Catharine Beecher, An Essay on Slavery and Abolitionism with Reference to the Duty of American Females (Philadelphia, 1837), 97-109; Kathryn Kish Sklar, Catharine Beecher: A Study in Domesticity (New Haven, 1973), 132-37; see also Colonization Herald 1 (Mar. 19, 1836): 93; 2 (Jul. 23, 1836): 127. On the connections between nineteenth-century politics and prizefighting, see Elliott J. Gorn, The Manly Art: Bare-Knuckle Prize Fighting in America (Ithaca, 1986), 125-27, 135.
229. African Repository 16 (Jul. 1. 1840): 202-205; Catharine Beecher, An Essay on Slavery and Abolitionism with Reference to the Duty of American Females (Philadelphia, 1837), 97-109; Kathryn Kish Sklar, Catharine Beecher: A Study in Domesticity (New Haven, 1973), 132-37; see also Colonization Herald 1 (Mar. 19, 1836): 93; 2 (Jul. 23, 1836): 127. On the connections between nineteenth-century politics and prizefighting, see Elliott J. Gorn, The Manly Art: Bare-Knuckle Prize Fighting in America (Ithaca, 1986), 125-27, 135.
230. African Repository 16 (Jul. 1. 1840): 202-205; Catharine Beecher, An Essay on Slavery and Abolitionism with Reference to the Duty of American Females (Philadelphia, 1837), 97-109; Kathryn Kish Sklar, Catharine Beecher: A Study in Domesticity (New Haven, 1973), 132-37; see also Colonization Herald 1 (Mar. 19, 1836): 93; 2 (Jul. 23, 1836): 127. On the connections between nineteenth-century politics and prizefighting, see Elliott J. Gorn, The Manly Art: Bare-Knuckle Prize Fighting in America (Ithaca, 1986), 125-27, 135.
231. African Repository 16 (Jul. 1. 1840): 202-205; Catharine Beecher, An Essay on Slavery and Abolitionism with Reference to the Duty of American Females (Philadelphia, 1837), 97-109; Kathryn Kish Sklar, Catharine Beecher: A Study in Domesticity (New Haven, 1973), 132-37; see also Colonization Herald 1 (Mar. 19, 1836): 93; 2 (Jul. 23, 1836): 127. On the connections between nineteenth-century politics and prizefighting, see Elliott J. Gorn, The Manly Art: Bare-Knuckle Prize Fighting in America (Ithaca, 1986), 125-27, 135.
232. African Repository 16 (Jul. 1. 1840): 202-205; Catharine Beecher, An Essay on Slavery and Abolitionism with Reference to the Duty of American Females (Philadelphia, 1837), 97-109; Kathryn Kish Sklar, Catharine Beecher: A Study in Domesticity (New Haven, 1973), 132-37; see also Colonization Herald 1 (Mar. 19, 1836): 93; 2 (Jul. 23, 1836): 127. On the connections between nineteenth-century politics and prizefighting, see Elliott J. Gorn, The Manly Art: Bare-Knuckle Prize Fighting in America (Ithaca, 1986), 125-27, 135.
233. See Kristin Hoganson, "Garrison Abolitionists and the Rhetoric of Gender, 1850-1860," American Quarterly 45 (1993): 558-595; Karen Sanchez-Eppler, Touching Liberty: Abolitionism, Feminism, and the Politics of the Body (Berkeley, 1993); Ronald G. Walters, The Antislavery Appeal: American Abolitionism After 1830 (Baltimore, 1978); Lydia Maria Child, An Appeal in Favor of that Class of Americans Called Africans (Boston, 1833); Harriet Beecher Stowe, A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin (Boston, 1853).
234. See Kristin Hoganson, "Garrison Abolitionists and the Rhetoric of Gender, 1850-1860," American Quarterly 45 (1993): 558-595; Karen Sanchez-Eppler, Touching Liberty: Abolitionism, Feminism, and the Politics of the Body (Berkeley, 1993); Ronald G. Walters, The Antislavery Appeal: American Abolitionism After 1830 (Baltimore, 1978); Lydia Maria Child, An Appeal in Favor of that Class of Americans Called Africans (Boston, 1833); Harriet Beecher Stowe, A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin (Boston, 1853).
235. See Kristin Hoganson, "Garrison Abolitionists and the Rhetoric of Gender, 1850-1860," American Quarterly 45 (1993): 558-595; Karen Sanchez-Eppler, Touching Liberty: Abolitionism, Feminism, and the Politics of the Body (Berkeley, 1993); Ronald G. Walters, The Antislavery Appeal: American Abolitionism After 1830 (Baltimore, 1978); Lydia Maria Child, An Appeal in Favor of that Class of Americans Called Africans (Boston, 1833); Harriet Beecher Stowe, A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin (Boston, 1853).
236. See Kristin Hoganson, "Garrison Abolitionists and the Rhetoric of Gender, 1850-1860," American Quarterly 45 (1993): 558-595; Karen Sanchez-Eppler, Touching Liberty: Abolitionism, Feminism, and the Politics of the Body (Berkeley, 1993); Ronald G. Walters, The Antislavery Appeal: American Abolitionism After 1830 (Baltimore, 1978); Lydia Maria Child, An Appeal in Favor of that Class of Americans Called Africans (Boston, 1833); Harriet Beecher Stowe, A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin (Boston, 1853).
237. See Kristin Hoganson, "Garrison Abolitionists and the Rhetoric of Gender, 1850-1860," American Quarterly 45 (1993): 558-595; Karen Sanchez-Eppler, Touching Liberty: Abolitionism, Feminism, and the Politics of the Body (Berkeley, 1993); Ronald G. Walters, The Antislavery Appeal: American Abolitionism After 1830 (Baltimore, 1978); Lydia Maria Child, An Appeal in Favor of that Class of Americans Called Africans (Boston, 1833); Harriet Beecher Stowe, A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin (Boston, 1853).
238. Proceedings of the National Emigration Convention of Colored People; Held at Cleveland, Ohio . . . 1854 (Pittsburgh, 1854), 8, 9, 14, 16-18
239. Shadd received her antislavery training in the house of her father, Delaware abolitionist Abraham Shadd, and her formal education in a Friends' school near Philadelphia. Mary A. Shadd, A Plea for Emigration; or Notes of Canada West . . . (Detroit, 1852); Jason H. Silverman, "Mary Ann Shadd and the Search for Equality," in Leon Litwack and August Meyer, eds., Black Leaders of the Nineteenth Century (Urbana, 1988), 87-100; Harold B. Hancock, "Mary Ann Shadd: Negro Editor, Educator, and Lawyer," Delaware History 15 (1973): 187-94; Sylvia G. L. Dannett, Profiles of Negro Womanhood, 2 vols. (Chicago, 1964), 1:150-57; Jane Rhodes, Mary Ann Shadd Cary: The Black Press and Protest in the Nineteenth Century (Bloomington, IN, 1998).
240. Shadd received her antislavery training in the house of her father, Delaware abolitionist Abraham Shadd, and her formal education in a Friends' school near Philadelphia. Mary A. Shadd, A Plea for Emigration; or Notes of Canada West . . . (Detroit, 1852); Jason H. Silverman, "Mary Ann Shadd and the Search for Equality," in Leon Litwack and August Meyer, eds., Black Leaders of the Nineteenth Century (Urbana, 1988), 87-100; Harold B. Hancock, "Mary Ann Shadd: Negro Editor, Educator, and Lawyer," Delaware History 15 (1973): 187-94; Sylvia G. L. Dannett, Profiles of Negro Womanhood, 2 vols. (Chicago, 1964), 1:150-57; Jane Rhodes, Mary Ann Shadd Cary: The Black Press and Protest in the Nineteenth Century (Bloomington, IN, 1998).
241. Shadd received her antislavery training in the house of her father, Delaware abolitionist Abraham Shadd, and her formal education in a Friends' school near Philadelphia. Mary A. Shadd, A Plea for Emigration; or Notes of Canada West . . . (Detroit, 1852); Jason H. Silverman, "Mary Ann Shadd and the Search for Equality," in Leon Litwack and August Meyer, eds., Black Leaders of the Nineteenth Century (Urbana, 1988), 87-100; Harold B. Hancock, "Mary Ann Shadd: Negro Editor, Educator, and Lawyer," Delaware History 15 (1973): 187-94; Sylvia G. L. Dannett, Profiles of Negro Womanhood, 2 vols. (Chicago, 1964), 1:150-57; Jane Rhodes, Mary Ann Shadd Cary: The Black Press and Protest in the Nineteenth Century (Bloomington, IN, 1998).
242. Shadd received her antislavery training in the house of her father, Delaware abolitionist Abraham Shadd, and her formal education in a Friends' school near Philadelphia. Mary A. Shadd, A Plea for Emigration; or Notes of Canada West . . . (Detroit, 1852); Jason H. Silverman, "Mary Ann Shadd and the Search for Equality," in Leon Litwack and August Meyer, eds., Black Leaders of the Nineteenth Century (Urbana, 1988), 87-100; Harold B. Hancock, "Mary Ann Shadd: Negro Editor, Educator, and Lawyer," Delaware History 15 (1973): 187-94; Sylvia G. L. Dannett, Profiles of Negro Womanhood, 2 vols. (Chicago, 1964), 1:150-57; Jane Rhodes, Mary Ann Shadd Cary: The Black Press and Protest in the Nineteenth Century (Bloomington, IN, 1998).
243. Shadd received her antislavery training in the house of her father,
244. Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization, part I; Litwack, North of Slavery, 27.
245. Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization, part I; Litwack, North of Slavery, 27.
246. Joshua Simpson, "Old Liberia is Not the Place for Me," in Original Antislavery Songs (Zanesville, Oh., 1852), 24-27, reprinted in Vicki L. Eaklor, American Antislavery Songs (Westport, Conn., 1988), 10-12; italics in original.
247. Joshua Simpson, "Old Liberia is Not the Place for Me," in Original Antislavery Songs (Zanesville, Oh., 1852), 24-27, reprinted in Vicki L. Eaklor, American Antislavery Songs (Westport, Conn., 1988), 10-12; italics in original.