Phylogeny and systematics of the rauvolfioideae (apocynaceae) based on molecular and morphological evidence

Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden

Volumn 94, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 268-297

  Simões, André O ^a,d   Livshultz, Tatyana ^b,c   Conti, Elena ^a   Endress, Mary E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ZURICH   (Switzerland)

^b HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA AT OMAHA   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF SÃO PAULO   (Brazil)

Author keywords

Apocynaceae; Classification; Homoplasy; Molecular phylogenetics; Morphology; Rauvolfioideae; Systematics

Indexed keywords

ALSTONIEAE; APOCYNACEAE; APOCYNOIDEAE; ASCLEPIADOIDEAE; MELODINEAE; PERIPLOCOIDEAE; RAUVOLFIOIDEAE; SECAMONOIDEAE; VINCEAE;

EID: 34248527860     PISSN: 00266493     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3417/0026-6493(2007)94[268:PASOTR]2.0.CO;2     Document Type: Article

References (153)

1. Albers, F. & U. Meve. 2001. A karyological survey of Asclepiadoideae, Periplocoideae, and Secamonoideae, and evolutionary considerations within Apocynaceae s.l. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 88: 624-656.
2. Allorge, L. 1985. Monographic des Apocynacées- Tabernaemontanoïdées américaines. Morphologie, Systématique, Chimio-taxonomie. Mém. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat., B, Bot. 30: 1-216.
3. _ & C. Poupat. 1991. Position systématique et révision du genre Aspidosperma (Apocynaceae) pour les trois Guyanes. Le point sur leur étude chimique. Bull. Soc. Bot. France 138, Lett. Bot. 4/5: 267-301.
4. Alvarado-Cárdenas, L. 2005. Phylogenetic analysis of the Cascabela-Thevetia complex (Plumerieae; Apocynaceae) based on morphology. XVII Int. Bot. Congr. Abstr. P1007: 398.
5. _ & H. Ochoterena. 2007. A phylogenetic analysis of the Cascabela-Thevetia species complex (Plumerieae, Apocynaceae) based on morphology. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 94: 298-323.
6. Alverson, W. S., B. Whitlock, R. Nyffeler, C. Bayer & D. A. Baum. 1999. Phylogeny of the core Malvales: Evidence from ndhF sequence data. Amer. J. Bot. 86: 1474-1486.
7. Backlund, M., B. Oxelman & B. Bremer. 2000. Phylogenetic relationships within the Gentianales based on ndhF and rbcL sequences, with particular reference to the Loganiaceae. Amer. J. Bot. 87: 1029-1043.
8. Barink, M. M. 1983. Part XII. A Revision of Pleioceras Baill., Stephanostema K. Schum. and Schizozygia Baill. (Apocynaceae). Pp. 21-53 in A. J. M. Leeuwenberg (editor), Series of Revisions of Apocynaceae. XI-XIII. Meded. Landbouwhoogeschool 83-7.
9. Bentham, G. & J. D. Hooker. 1876. Genera Plantarum 2: 681-728. Lovell Reeve, Williams and Norgate, London.
10. Bisset, N. G. 1960. The occurrence of alkaloids in the Apocynaceae. Part II. A review of recent developments. Ann. Bogor. 4: 65-144.
11. _. 1980. Phytochemistry. Pp. 211-237 in A. J. M. Leeuwenberg (editor), Engler and Prantl's Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien, Fam. Loganiaceae, Vol. 28b(1). Duncker & Humblot, Berlin.
12. _. 1992. Uses, chemistry and pharmacology of Malouetia (Apocynaceae, subfam. Apocynoideae). J. Ethno-pharmacol. 36: 43-50.
13. Brehm, G., T. Hartmann & K. Wilmott. 2007. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids and pharmacophagous Lepidoptera visitors of Prestonia amabilis (Apocynaceae) in a montane rainforest in Ecuador. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 94: 463-473.
14. Bremer, B. & O. Eriksson. 1992. Evolution of fruit characters and dispersal modes in the tropical family Rubiaceae. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 47: 79-95.
15. Chatterjee, D. K., N. Iyer & B. N. Ganguli. 1987. Antiamoebic activity of chonemorphine, a steroidal alkaloid, in experimental models. Parasitol. Res. 74: 30-33.
16. Civeyrel, L. & N. Rowe. 2001. Phylogenetic relationships of Secamonoideae based on the plastid gene matK, morphology, and biomechanics. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 88: 583-602.
17. _, A. Le Thomas, K. Ferguson & M. W. Chase. 1998. Critical reexamination of palynological characters used to delimit Asclepiadaceae in comparison to molecular phylogeny obtained from plastid matK sequences. Molec. Phylogenet. Evol. 9: 517-527.
18. Clausing, G., K. Meyer & S. S. Renner. 2000. Correlations among fruit traits and evolution of different fruits within Melastomataceae. Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 133: 303-326.
19. Coppen, J.-J. W. & A. L. Cobb. 1983. The occurrence of iridoids in Plumeria and Allamanda. Phytochemistry 22: 125-128.
20. Corner, E. J. H. 1976a. The Seeds of Dicotyledons. Vol. I. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, New York.
21. _. 1976b. The Seeds of Dicotyledons. Vol. II. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, New York.
22. Correll, D. S. & H. B. Correll. 1982. Carissa macrocarpa. Pp. 1126-1127 in Flora of the Bahama Archipelago. J. Cramer, Vaduz.
23. De Kruif, A. P. M. 1983. Series of revisions of Apocynaceae. Part XI. A revision of Motandra A. DC. (Apocynaceae). Meded. Landbouwhoogeschool. Wageningen 83: 1-20.
24. Doll, M. K.-H., A. Guggisberg & M. Hesse. 1996. Synthesis of Oncinotin-11-one, a macrocyclic polyamine alkaloid from Oncinotis tenuiloba. Helv. Chim. Acta. 79: 1379-1386.
25. Doyle, J. J. & J. L. Doyle. 1987. A rapid DNA isolation procedure for small quantities of fresh leaf tissue. Phytochem. Bull. Bot. Soc. Amer. 19: 11-15.
26. Endress, M. E. & P. Bruyns. 2000. A revised classification of the Apocynaceae s.l. Bot. Rev. (Lancaster) 66: 1-56.
27. _, M. Hesse, S. Nilsson, A. Guggisberg & J.-P. Zhu. 1990. The systematic position of the Holarrheninae (Apocynaceae). Pl. Syst. Evol. 171: 157-185.
28. _, B. Sennblad, S. Nilsson, L. Civeyrel, M. W. Chase, S. Huysmans, E. Graftström & B. Bremer. 1996. A phylogenetic analysis of Apocynaceae s. str. and some related taxa in Gentianales: A multidisciplinary approach. Opera Bot. Belg. 7:59-102.
29. _, D. H. Lorence & P. K. Endress. 1997. Structure and development of the gynoecium of Lepinia marquisensis and its systematic position in the Apocynaceae. Allertonia 7: 267-272.
30. _, R. W. J. M. van der Ham, S. Nilsson, L. Civeyrel, M. Chase, B. Sennblad, K. Potgieter, J. Joseph, M. Powell, D. Lorence, Y.-M. Zimmerman & V. A. Albert. 2007. A phylogenetic analysis of Alyxieae (Apocynaceae) based on rbcL, matK, trnL intron, trnL-F spacer sequences, and morphological characters. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 94: 1-35.
31. Endress, P. K., M. Jenny & M. E. Fallen. 1983. Convergent elaboration of apocarpous gynoecia in higher advanced dicotyledons (Sapindales, Malvales, Gentianales). Nordic J. Bot. 3: 293-300.
32. Erbar, C. 1991. Sympetaly - A systematic character? Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 112: 417-451.
33. Erdtman, G. 1952. Pollen Morphology and Plant Taxonomy. Angiosperms. Almqvist & Wiksell, Stockholm.
34. Fallen, M. E. 1985. The gynoecial development and systematic position of Allamanda (Apocynaceae). Amer. J. Bot. 72: 572-579.
35. _. 1986. Floral structure in Apocynaceae: Morphological, functional, and evolutionary aspects. Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 106: 245-286.
36. Felsenstein, J. 1985. Confidence limits on phylogenies: An approach using the bootstrap. Evolution 39: 783-791.
37. Forster, P. I. & J. B. Williams. 1996. Apocynaceae. Pp. 104-196 in A. E. Orchard (editor), Flora of Australia, Vol. 18, Gentianales. CSIRO, Melbourne.
38. Fosberg, F. R. & M.-H. Sachet. 1977. Nomenclature of the Ochrosiinae (Apocynaceae): 1. Application of the names Neisosperma Raf. and Calpicarpum G. Don. Adansonia, Sér. 2, 17: 19-22.
39. Gadella, T. W. J. 1980. Cytology. Pp. 202-210 in A. J. M. Leeuwenberg (editor), Engler & Prantl's Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien, Fam. Loganiaceae, Vol. 28b(1). Duncker & Humblot, Berlin.
40. Gentry, A. H. 1983. Alstonia (Apocynaceae): Another palaeotropical genus in Central America. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 70: 206-207.
41. Goldblatt, P. (editor). 1984. Index to plant chromosome numbers 1979-1981. Monogr. Syst. Bot. Missouri Bot. Gard. 8.
42. _ (editor). 1988. Index to plant chromosome numbers 1984-1985. Monogr. Syst. Bot. Missouri Bot. Gard. 23.
43. _ & D. E. Johnson (editors). 1990. Index to plant chromosome numbers 1986-1987. Monogr. Syst. Bot. Missouri Bot. Gard. 30.
44. _ & _ (editors). 1991. Index to plant chromosome numbers 1988-1989. Monogr. Syst. Bot. Missouri Bot. Gard. 40.
45. Graybeal, A. 1998. Is it better to add taxa or characters to a difficult phylogenetic problem? Syst. Biol. 47: 9-17.
46. Hartmann, T. & L. Witte. 1995. Chemistry, biology and chemoecology of the pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Pp. 155-233 in S. W. Pelletier (editor), Alkaloids; Chemical and Biological Perspectives, Vol. 9. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
47. Hegnauer, R. 1970. Cardenolide und Bufadienolida (= Cardenolide). Verbreitung und systematische Bedeutung. Pl. Med. (Stuttgart). 19: 137-153.
48. _. 1989. Chemotaxonomie der Pflanzen 8. Birkhäuser, Basel.
49. Hendrian. 2004. Revision of Ochrosia (Apocynaceae) in Malesia. Blumea 49: 101-128.
50. Homberger, K. & M. Hesse. 1984. Kopsirachin, ein ungewöhnliches Alkaloid aus der Apocynaceae Kopsia dasyrachis Ridl. Helv. Chim. Acta 67: 237-248.
51. Humberto, M. M. S., M. C. B. S. Nascimento & A. E. G. Sant' Ana. 2004. Pentacyclic triterpene 5-phenylpenta-2,4-dienoyl esters from Peltastes peltatus (Vell.) Woodson. Phyotchem. Analysis 15: 339-344.
52. Johnson, L. A. S. & B. G. Briggs. 1984. Myrtales and Myrtaceae - A phylogenetic analysis. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 71: 700-756.
53. Judd, W. S., R. W. Sanders & M. J. Donoghue. 1994. Angiosperm family pairs: Preliminary phylogenetic analysis. Harvard Pap. Bot. 5: 1-51.
54. Kisakürek, M. V., A. J. M. Leeuwenberg & M. Hesse. 1983. A chemotaxonomic investigation of the plant families of Apocynaceae, Loganiaceae, and Rubiaceae by their indole alkaloid content. Pp. 211-376 in S. W. Pelletier (editor), Alkaloids: Chemical and Biological Perspectives, Vol. 1. Wiley, New York.
55. Koch, I., V. Bittrich & L. S. Kinoshita. 2002. Reproductive biology and functional aspects of the floral morphology of Rauvolfia sellowii Müll. Arg. (Apocynaceae; Rauvolfioideae) - A report of dioecy in Apocynaceae. Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 124: 83-104.
56. Kunze, H. 1991. Structure and function in asclepiad pollination. Pl. Syst. Evol. 176: 227-253.
57. _. 1993. Evolution of the translator in Periplocaceae and Asclepiadaceae. Pl. Syst. Evol. 185: 99-122.
58. _. 1996. Morphology of the stamen in the Asclepiadaceae and its systematic relevance. Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 118: 547-579.
59. Leeuwenberg, A. J. B. 1991. A Revision of Tabernaemontana. The Old World Species. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
60. _. 1994a. Taxa of the Apocynaceae above the genus level. Series of revisions of Apocynaceae. XXXVIII. Wageningen Agric. Univ. Pap. 94(3): 45-60.
61. _. 1994b. A Revision of Tabernaemontana. Two. The New World Species. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
62. _. 1997. Series of revisions of Apocynaceae. XLIV. Craspidospermum Boj. ex A. DC., Gonioma E. Mey., Mascarenhasia A. DC., Petchia Livera, Plectaneia Thou., and Stephanostegia Baill. Wageningen Agric. Univ. Pap. 97: 1-124.
63. _. 2003. Series of revisions of Apocynaceae. LIII. Melodinus. Syst. & Geogr. Pl. 73: 3-62.
64. _ & P. W. Leenhouts. 1980. Taxonomy. Pp. 8-96 in A. J. M. Leeuwenberg (editor), Engler and Prantl's Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien, Fam. Loganiaceae, Vol. 28b(1). Duncker & Humblot, Berlin.
65. _ & F. J. H. van Dilst. 1989. Series of revisions of Apocynaceae. XXVII. Saba (Pichon) Pichon. Bull. Jard. Bot. Natl. Belg. 59: 189-206.
66. _ & _. 2001. Series of revisions of Apocynaceae. XLIX. Carissa L. Wageningen Univ. Pap. 1: 1-108.
67. Li, P.-T. 1982. On the trends of morphological differentiation and evolutionary system in Chinese Apocynales. Guihaia 2: 165-170.
68. _, A. J. M. Leeuwenberg & D. J. Middleton. 1995a. Apocynaceae. Pp. 143-188 in Z.-Y. Wu & P. H. Raven (editors), Flora of China, Vol. 16. Science Press, Beijing and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis.
69. _, M. G. Gilbert & W. D. Stevens. 1995b. Asclepiadaceae. Pp. 189-270 in Z.-Y. Wu & P. H. Raven (editors), Flora of China, Vol. 16. Science Press, Beijing and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis.
70. Liede, S. & U. Meve. 2004. Dissolution of Cynanchum section Macbridea (Apocynaceae-Asclepiadoideae). Nordic J. Bot. 22: 579-591.
71. _, _ & A. Täuber. 2002a. What is the subtribe Glossonematinae (Apocynaceae: Asclepiadoideae)? A phylogenetic study based on cpDNA spacer. Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 139: 145-158.
72. _, A. Täuber & J. Schneidt. 2002b. Molecular considerations in the Tylophorinae K. Schum. (Apocynaceae-Asclepiadoideae). Edinburgh J. Bot. 59: 377-403.
73. Liede-Schumann, S., A. Rapini, D. J. Goyder & M. W. Chase. 2005. Phylogenetics of the New World subtribes of Asclepiadeae (Apocynaceae- Asclepiadoideae): Metastelmatinae, Oxypetalinae, and Gonolobinae. Syst. Bot. 30: 184-195.
74. Lienau, K., H. Straka & B. Friedrich. 1986. Palynologia Madagassica et Mascarenica, Fam. 167-181. Trop. Subtrop. Pflanzenwelt 55: 1-158.
75. Livshultz, T., D. J. Middleton, M. E. Endress & J. K. Williams. 2007. Phylogeny of Apocynoideae and the APSA clade (Apocynaceae s.l.). Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 94: 324-359.
76. Lorence, D. H. & W. L. Wagner. 1997. A revision of Lepinia (Apocynaceae), with description of a new species from the Marquesas Islands. Allertonia 7: 254-266.
77. Lý, T. D. 1986. Die Familie Apocynaceae Juss. in Vietnam. Feddes Repert. 97: 235-273.
78. Maddison, D. & W. Maddison. 2000. MacClade 4: Analysis of Phylogeny and Character Evolution. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland.
79. Markgraf, F. 1974. Morphologische Kleinigkeiten mit grösseren Folgen. Phyton (Austria) 16: 105-116.
80. Marloth, R. 1932. The Flora of South Africa. 3 (1). Dartre Bros., Cape Town.
81. Meve, U. & S. Liede. 2002. A molecular phylogeny and generic rearrangement of the stapelioid Ceropegieae (Apocynaceae-Asclepiadoideae). Pl. Syst. Evol. 234: 171-209.
82. _ & _. 2004. Sub-tribal division of Ceropegieae (Apocynaceae- Asclepiadoideae). Taxon 53: 61-72.
83. Middleton, D. J. 1993. A taxonomic revision of Willughbeia Roxb. (Apocynaceae). Blumea 38: 1-24.
84. _. 1999. Apocynaceae. Pp. 1-153 in T. Santisuk & K. Larsen (editors), Flora of Thailand, Vol. 7(1). Diamond Printing, Bangkok.
85. _. 2000. Revision of Alyxia (Apocynaceae). Part 1: Asia and Malesia. Blumea 45: 1-146.
86. _. 2002. Revision of Alyxia (Apocynaceae). Part 2: Pacific Islands and Australia. Blumea 47: 1-93.
87. _. 2003. A revision of Dyera (Apocynaceae: Rauvolfioideae). Gard. Bull. Singapore 55: 209-218.
88. _. 2004a. A revision of Kopsia (Apocynaceae: Rauvolfioideae). Harvard Pap. Bot. 9: 89-142.
89. _. 2004b. Apocynaceae. Pp. 1-61 in E. Soepadmo, L. G. Saw & R. C. K. Chung (editors), Tree Flora of Sabah and Sarawak, Vol. 5. Forest Research Institute, Ampang Press, Kuala Lumpur.
90. _, S. Suddee & S. Lindsay. 2005. A new species of Kamettia (Apocynaceae: Rauvolfioideae), a genus new to Thailand. Thai Forest Bull., Bot. 33: 75-80.
91. Monachino, J. 1943. A revision of Couma and Parahancornia (Apocynaceae). Lloydia 6: 229-247.
92. _. 1949. A revision of the genus Alstonia (Apocynaceae). Pacif. Sci. 3: 133-182.
93. Morales, J. F. 1995. Evaluación del Género Alstonia (Apocynaceae) en Centro América. Phytologia 78: 192-194.
94. Moré, M., A. N. Séric & A. A. Cocucci. 2007. Restriction of pollinator assemblage through flower length and width in three long-tongued hawkmoth-pollinated species of Mandevilla (Apocynaceae, Apocynoideae). Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 94: 485-504.
95. Morillo, G. N. 1978. El género Marsdenia en Venezuela, Colombia y Ecuador. Acta Bot. Venez. 13: 23-73.
96. _. 1997. Asclepiadaceae. Pp. 129-177 in P. E. Berry, B. K. Holst & K. Yatskievycli (editors), Flora of the Venezuelan Guayana, Vol. 3, Araliaceae-Cactaceae. Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis.
97. Nilsson, S. 1986. The significance of pollen morphology in the Apocynaceae. Pp. 359-374 in S. Blackmore & K. Ferguson (editors), Pollen and Spores: Form and Function; papers presented at an international symposium held at the Linnean Society's Rooms and the British Museum (Natural History), London, 27-29 March 1985. Academic Press, London.
98. _, M. E. Endress & E. Gräfstrom. 1993. On the relationships of the Apocynaceae and Periplocaceae. Grana, Suppl. 2: 3-20.
99. Nishino, E. 1982. Corolla tube formation in six species of Apocynaceae. Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 95: 1-17.
100. _. 1983. Corolla tube formation in Tubiflorae and Gentianales. Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 96: 223-243.
101. Nixon, K. C. & J. M. Carpenter. 1996. On simultaneous analysis. Cladistics 12(3): 221-241.
102. Olmstead, R. G., B. Bremer, K. M. Scott & J. D. Palmer. 1993. A parsimony analysis of the Asterideae sensu lato based on rbcL sequences. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 80: 700-722.
103. Omino, E. 1996. A contribution to the leaf anatomy and taxonomy of Apocynaceae in Africa. 2. A monograph of Pleiocarpinae. Series of revisions of Apocynaceae. XLI. Wageningen Agric. Univ. Pap. 96-1: 81-178.
104. Ornduff, R. 1970. The systematics and breeding system of Gelsemium (Loganiaceae). J. Arnold Arbor. 51: 1-17.
105. Persoon, J. G. M., F. J. H. van Dilst, R. P. Kuijpers, A. J. M. Leeuwenberg & G. J. A. Vonk. 1992. Series of revisions of Apocynaceae. XXXIV. The African species of Landolphia P. Beauv. Wageningen Agric. Univ. Pap. 92-2: 1-232.
106. Pichon, M. 1947. Classification des Apocynacées: IV. Genre "Alstonia" et genres voisins. Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. (Paris), Sér. 2, 19: 294-301.
107. _. 1948a. Classification des Apocynacées: I. Carissées et Ambelaniées. Mém. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat., B, Bot. 24: 111-181.
108. _. 1948b. Classification des Apocynacées: V, Cerbéroidees. Notul. Syst. 13: 212-229.
109. _. 1949. Classification des Apocynacées: IX. Kauvolfiées, Alstoniées, Allamandées et Tabernaémontanées. Mém. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat., B, Bot. 24: 153-251.
110. _. 1950. Classification des Apocynacéaes: XXVIII, Supplément aux Plumérioïdées. Mém. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat., B, Bot. 1: 145-166.
111. _. 1952. Classification des Apocynacées: XXXIII, les Sous-Tribus des Carissées. Notul. Syst. 14: 310-315.
112. Plazier, A. C. 1980. A revision of Adenium Roem. & Schult. and of Diplorhynchus Welw. ex Fic. & Hiern (Apocynaceae). Meded. Landbouwhoogeschool Wageningen 80-12: 27-40.
113. Posada, D. & K. A. Crandall. 1998. Modeltest: Testing the model of DNA substitution. Bioinformatics 14: 817-818.
114. Potgieter, K. & V. A. Albert. 2001. Phylogenetic relationships within Apocynaceae s.l. based on trnL intron and trnL-F spacer sequences and propagule characters. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 88: 523-549.
115. Rannala, B., J. P. Huelsenbeck, Z. Yang & R. Nielsen. 1998. Taxon sampling and the accuracy of large phylogenies. Syst. Biol. 47: 702-710.
116. Rapini, A., M. W. Chase, D. J. Goyder & J. Griffiths. 2003. Asclepiadoideae classification: Evaluating the phylogenetic relationships of New World Asclepiadoideae (Apocynaceae). Taxon 52: 33-50.
117. Reeves, G., P. Goldblatt, M. W. Chase, P. J. Rudall, M. F. May, A. V. Cox, B. Lejeune & T. Souza-Chies. 2001. Molecular systematics of Iridaceae: Evidence from four plastid DNA regions. Amer. J. Bot. 88: 2074-2087.
118. Ronquist, F. & J. P. Huelsenbeck. 2003. Mr Bayes 3: Bayesian phylogenetic inference under mixed models. Bioinformatics 19: 1572-1574.
119. Rosatti, T. J. 1989. The genera of suborder Apocynineae (Apocynaceae and Asclepiadaceae) in the southeastern United States. J. Arnold Arbor. 70: 307-401.
120. Schick, B. 1980. Untersuchungen iiber die Biotechnik der Apocynaceeribliite. I. Morphologie und Funktion des Narbenkopfes. Flora 172: 394-432.
121. _. 1982. Untersuchungen über die Biotechnik der Apocynaccenblü te. II. Bau und Funktion des Bestäubungsapparates. Flora 172: 347-371.
122. Schumann, K. 1895. Apocynaceae and Asclepiadaceae. Pp. 109-306 in A. Engler & K. Prantl (editors). Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien 4(2). Engelmann, Leipzig.
123. Sennblad, B. & B. Bremer. 1996. The familial and subfamilial relationships of Apocynaceae and Asclepiadaceae evaluated with rbcL data. Pl. Syst. Evol. 202: 153-175.
124. _ & _. 2002. Classification of Apocynaceae s.l. according to a new approach combining Linnaean and phylogenetic taxonomy. Syst. Biol. 51: 389-409.
125. _, M. E. Endress & B. Bremer. 1998. Morphology and molecular data in phylogenetic fraternity: The tribe Wrightieae (Apocynaceae) revisited. Amer. J. Bot. 85: 1143-1158.
126. Sheahan, M. C. & M. W. Chase. 2000. Phylogenetic relationships within Zygophyllaceae based on DNA sequences of three plastid regions with special emphasis on Zygophylloideae. Syst. Bot. 25: 371-384.
127. Sidiyasa, K. 1998. Taxonomy, phylogeny, and wood anatomy of Alstonia (Apocynaceae). Blumea, Suppl. 11: 1-230.
128. Simmons, M. P. & H. Ochoterena. 2000. Gaps as characters in sequence-based phylogenetic analyses. Syst. Biol. 49: 369-381.
129. Simões, A. O. & L. S. Kinoshita. 2002. The Apocynaceae s. sir. of the Carrancas region, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Darwiniana 40: 127-169.
130. _, M. E. Endress, T. van der Niet, E. Conti & L. S. Kinoshita. 2004. Tribal and intergeneric relationships of Mesechiteae (Apocynaceae, Apocynoideae): Evidence from three noncoding plastid DNA regions and morphology. Amer. J. Bot. 91: 1409-1418.
131. _, _, _, L. S. Kinoshita & E. Conti. 2006. Is Mandevilla (Apocynaceae, Mesechiteae) monophyletic? Evidence from five plastid DNA loci and morphology. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 93: 565-591.
132. Smith, J. F. & C. L. Carroll. 1997. A cladistic analysis of the tribe Episcieae (Gesneriaceae) based on ndhF sequences: Origin of morphological characters. Syst. Bot. 22: 713-724.
133. Soltis, D. E., P. S. Soltis, M. E. Mort, M. W. Chase, V. Savolainen, S. B. Hoot & C. M. Morton. 1998. Inferring complex phylogenies using parsimony: An empirical approach using three large DNA data sets for angiosperms. Syst. Biol. 47: 32-42.
134. _, R. K. Kuzoff, M. E. Mort, M. Zanis, M. Fishbein, L. Hufford, J. Koontz & M. K. Arroyo. 2001. Elucidating deep-level phylogenetic relationships in Saxifragaceae using sequences for six chloroplastic and nuclear DNA regions. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 88: 669-693.
135. Stapf, O. 1902. Apocynaceae. Pp. 24-233 in W. T. Thiselton-Dyer (editor), Flora of Tropical Africa 4. L. Reeve, London.
136. Swofford, D. L. 2000. PAUP*: Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony, version 4.0b. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts.
137. van der Ham, R., Y. M. Zimmerman, S. Nilsson & A. Igersheim. 2001. Pollen morphology and phylogeny of the Alyxieae. Grana 40: 169-191.
138. van der Ploeg, J. 1983. A revision of Isonema R. Br. and Pycnobotrya Benth. (Apocynaceae). Wageningen Agric. Univ. Pap. 83-4: 13-20.
139. Venter, H. J. T. & R. L. Verhoeven. 2001. Diversity and relationships within the Periplocoideae (Apocynaceae). Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 88: 550-568.
140. Verhoeven, R. L. & H. J. T. Venter. 2001. Pollen morphology of the Periplocoideae, Secamonoideae, and Asclepiadoideae (Apocynaceae). Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 88: 569-582.
141. _, S. Liede & M. Endress. 2003. The tribal position of Fockea and Cibirhiza (Apocynaceae-Asclepiadoideae): Evidence from pollinium structure and cpDNA sequence data. Grana 42: 70-81.
142. Vonk, G. J. A. 1989. Series of revisions of Apocynaceae. XXX. A taxonomic revision of the genus Orthopichonia. Wageningen Agric. Univ. Pap. 89-4: 27-50.
143. _, A. J. M. Leeuwenberg & R. M. A. P. Haegens. 1994. Series of revisions of Apocynaceae. XXXVII. Revision of Ancylobotrys Pierre. Wageningen Agric. Univ. Pap. 94-4: 3-44.
144. Whitten, W. M., N. H. Williams & M. W. Chase. 2000. Subtribal and generic relationships of Maxillarieae (Orchidaceae) with emphasis on Stanhopeinae: Combined molecular evidence. Amer. J. Bot. 87: 1842-1856.
145. Wiens, J. J. 1998. Combining data sets with different phylogenetic stories. Syst. Biol. 47: 568-581.
146. Williams, J. K. 1995. Miscellaneous notes on Haplophyton (Apocynaceae: Plumerieae: Haplophytinae). Sida 16: 469-175.
147. _. 1996. The Mexican genera of Apocynaceae (sensu A. DC.), with key and additional taxonomic notes. Sida 17: 197-213.
148. Woodson, R. E., Jr. 1928. Studies in the Apocynaceae. III. A monograph of the genus Amsonia. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 15: 379-427.
149. _. 1933. Studies in the Apocynaceae IV. The American genera of Echitoideae. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 22: 153-306.
150. _. 1951. Studies in the Apocynaceae VIII. An interim revision of the genus Aspidosperma Mart. & Zucc. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 38: 119-206.
151. Young, N. D. & J. Healy. 2003. Gapcoder automates the use of indel characters in phylogenetic analysis. Bioinformatics 4: 6.
152. Zarucchi, J. L. 1991. A new species of Parahancornia Ducke (Apocynaceae: Plumerioideae: Carisseae) with comments on the genus. Novon 1: 37-44.
153. Zurawski, G., B. Perrot, W. Bottomley & P. R. Whitfeld. 1981. The structure of the gene for the large subunit of ribulose 1,5-biphosphate carboxylase from spinach chloroplast DNA. Nucl. Acids Res. 9: 3251-3270.