Two-level games and bargaining outcomes: Why gaiatsu succeeds in Japan in some cases but not others

International Organization

Volumn 47, Issue 3, 1993, Pages 353-386

  Schoppa, Leonard J ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 34248242703     PISSN: 00208183     EISSN: 15315088     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0020818300027995     Document Type: Article

References (32)

1. Putnam, “Diplomacy and Domestic Politics,” pp. 447–48 and 455–56.
2. Testimony of Charles H. Dallara, leader of the treasury delegation to the SII talks, in U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Finance, United States-Japan Structural Impediments Initiative (SII): Hearings Before the Subcommittee on International Trade, 101st Congress, 2d sess., 5 March 1990 (hereafter referred to as the SII Hearings of 5 March 1990), p. 45.
3. Keisuka Okada, “Ball is Now in U.S. Court on SII Talks,” Japan Times Weekly, international edition, 9–15 April 1990, p. 1.
4. Peter Ennis, “U.S.-Japan 'Structural Impediments' at an Impasse,” Tokyo Business Today, April 1990, p. 22. See also interviews with MOF officials, Tokyo, summer 1992.
5. Japan Economic Institute, JEI Report, no. 15B, 13 April 1990, p. 7, and JEI Report, no. 26B, 6 July 1990, pp. 11–12.
6. William H. Cooper, “Japan-U.S. Trade: The Structural Impediments Initiative,” Current Politics and Economics of Japan, vol. 1, no. 1, 1991, pp. 73–81. It is, of course, impossible to specify exactly what proportion of GNP the nation's 430-trillion-yen commitment will equal in the absence of prior knowledge about how fast Japanese GNP will grow over the period of the ten-year plan. The 9 percent estimate is based on my own calculations assuming a 4 percent sustained growth rate over the remaining years of the ten-year plan.
7. Japan Times Weekly, international edition, 7–13 January 1991, p. 1, and 4–10 January 1993, p. 6. “First Annual Report of the SII Follow-up,” 22 May 1991, pp. 1–3, and “Second Annual Report of the SII Follow-up,” 30 July 1992, pp. 1-3; reports provided by the Japanese Embassy, Washington, D.C.
8. Japan Times Weekly, international edition, 20–26 May 1991,
9. Testimony of Dallara, SII Hearings of 5 March 1990, p. 45.
10. Ibid. See also Shigeko Fukai, Japan's Land Policy and Its Global Impact, U.S.-Japan Program Occasional Paper no. 90–01, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., 1990, p. 46.
11. Testimony of S. Linn Williams, SII Hearings of 5 March 1990, pp. 113–114.
12. See testimony of Commerce Undersecretary J. Michael Farren, SII Hearings of 5 March 1990, p. 51; and Yuko Inoue, “FTC is a Referee with a Quiet Whistle,” Japan Economic Journal, 18 November 1989, p. 6.
13. Paul Blustein, “Top Treasury Official Warns Japan on Monopoly Practices,” Washington Post, 23 May 1991, p. B18. See also “Comments of the U.S. Delegation,” in “First Annual Report of the SII Follow-up,” p. 7.
14. Testimony of Dallara, SII Hearings of 5 March 1990 p. 46.
15. See Steven Weisman, “Trade Talks Fail to Produce Gains for U.S. or Japan,” New York Times; 16 March 1991, p. Al; and Imai Ken'ichi, “The Legitimacy of Japan's Corporate Groups,” Japan Echo 17 (Autumn 1990), pp. 23–28.
16. Fair Trade Commission Executive Office, The Outline of the Report on the Actual Conditions of the Six Major Corporate Groups, February 1992, p. 19.
17. See Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984); Robert Axelrod, The Evolution of Cooperation (New York: Basic Books, 1984); and Joseph Grieco, Cooperation Among Nations (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990).
18. James K. Sebenius, “Challenging Conventional Explanations of International Cooperation: Negotiation Analysis and the Case of Epistemic Communities,” International Organization 46 (Winter 1992), pp. 323–65.
19. Milner, “International Theories of Cooperation Among Nations,” pp. 488–495.
20. Robert O. Keohane and Joseph Nye, Power and Interdependence, 2d ed. (HarperCollins, 1989), pp. 30–31.
21. See Japan Economic Institute, “Outlook for U.S.-Japan Trade Relations: An Interview with S. Linn Williams of USTR,”JEI Report, no. 1A, 11 January 1991, p. 2.
22. Dennis J. Encarnation and Mark Mason, “Neither MITI nor America: the Political Economy of Capital Liberalization in Japan,” International Organization 44 (Winter 1990), pp. 25-54; the quotation is from p. 25.
23. E. E. Schattschneider, The Semisovereign People: A Realist View of Democracy in America (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960), p. 2.
24. James K. Sebenius, “Negotiation Arithmetic: Adding and Subtracting Issues and Parties,” International Organization 37 (Spring 1983), pp. 281–316.
25. Randall Ripley and Grace Franklin, Congress, the Bureaucracy, and Public Policy; 3d ed. (Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey Press, 1984), p. 8.
26. See Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982); and George Stigler, “The Theory of Regulation,” Bell Journal of Economics and Management Science 2 (Spring 1971), pp. 3–21.
27. See John C. Campbell, “Policy Conflict and Its Resolution Within the Governmental System,” in Ellis Krauss, Thomas Rohlen, and Patricia Steinhoff, eds., Conflict in Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1984), pp. 294-334; and Rosenbluth, Financial Politics in Contemporary Japan,
28. Theodore Lowi, “American Business, Public Policy, Case-Studies, and Political Theory,” World Politics 16 (July 1964), pp. 677–715.
29. John W. Kingdon.Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies (Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman and Company), pp. 20–21.
30. Nihon Keizai Shimbunsha, Daitenho ga kieru hi, pp. 92–106.
31. Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies pp. 122-51.
32. Shigeko Fukai, “The Role of Gaiatsu in Japan's Land Policymaking,” paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, 111., 3–6 September 1992.