Aleksandr Polezhaev and remembrance of war in the Caucasus: Constructions of the soldier as victim

Slavic Review

Volumn 58, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 559-583

  Layton, Susan ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 34248096037     PISSN: 00376779     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2697568     Document Type: Article

References (189)

1. Paul Fussell, The Great War and Modern Memory (London, 1975;
2. reprint, London, 1981). Frank Kermode's review of Fussell suggestively asks how a war becomes "part of our minds": New York Times Book Review, 31 August 1975, 14.
3. For other, often critical responses to Fussell, consult Andrew Rutherford, The Literature of War: Five Studies in Heroic Virtue, 2d ed. (Basingstoke, 1989), 65-75;
4. Lynne Hanley, Writing War: Fiction, Gender and Memory (Amherst, 1991), 4-6, 28-31;
5. and Mosaic (special issue on "Troops and Tropes") 23, no. 3 (Summer 1990).
6. David Freedberg, The Power of Images: Studies in the History and Theory of Response (Chicago, 1989), 49-51.
7. Viktor Shklovskii, O teorii prozy (Moscow, 1925), 192,
8. quoted with commentary in Victor Erlich, Russian Formalism: History, Doctrine (The Hague, 1965), 209-10;
9. and Gary Saul Morson, "The Reader as Voyeur: Tolstoi and the Poetics of Didactic Fiction," Canadian-American Slavic Studies 12 (Winter 1978): 466-67, 470-80.
10. Quote from Evelyn Cobley, "History and Ideology in Autobiographical Literature of the First World War," Mosaic 23, no. 3 (Summer 1990): 42.
11. Edmund Blunden, Undertones of War (London, 1928), vii;
12. and Fussell, Great War, 268-69.
13. Neil Powell, "What War Is Not Like Any More" [review of Faber Book of War Poetry, ed. Kenneth Baker], Times Literary Supplement, 13 December 1996, 24.
14. On "ideally true responsive understanding,"see M. M. Bakhtin, Speech Genres and Other Late Essays, trans. Vern W. McGee, ed. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist (Austin, 1986), 125-27.
15. The following have also shaped my thinking about Polezhaev's war poetry: M. M. Bakhtin, "Art and Answerability," in Art and Answerability, ed. Michael Holquist and Vadim Liapunov, trans. and notes Vadim Liapunov, supplementary trans. Kenneth Brostrom (Austin, 1990), 1-3;
16. Fussell, Great War, 3-7, 82-93;
17. John Keegan, A History of Warfare (London, 1994), 3-12;
18. Evelyn J. Hinz, "An Introduction to War and Literature: Ajax versus Ulysses," Mosaic 23, no. 3 (Summer 1990): v-xii;
19. Eric J. Leed, No Man's Land: Combat and Identity in World War I (Cambridge, Eng., 1979), 109-10, 125-26, 188-89, 196-204;
20. Richard Norman, Ethics, Killing and War (Cambridge, Eng., 1995), 169-206.
21. George L. Mosse, Fallen Soldiers: Reshaping the Memory of the World Wars (Oxford, 1990), 6-7, 73-77, 99-105.
22. Mosse, Fallen Soldiers, 212-17;
23. Marc Fisher, "Movie Helps Germans to Mourn War," International Herald Tribune, 2 April 1996, last page;
24. Susan Jeffords, The Remasculinization of America: Gender and the Vietnam War (Bloomington, 1989), 46, 116-28;
25. and Lynda E. Boose, "Techno-Muscularity and the 'Boy Eternal': From the Quagmire to the Gulf," in Miriam Cooke and Angela Woollacott, eds., Gendering War Talk (Princeton, 1993), 69-88.
26. John L. H. Keep, Soldiers of the Tsar: Army and Society in Russia, 1462-1874 (Oxford, 1985), 342.
27. E. G. Veidenbaum, Kavkazskie etiudy, in Kavkazovedenie, vol. 1 (Tiflis, 1901), 269.
28. Elise Kimerling Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier (Princeton, 1990), 108-9.
29. Poety 1820-1830-kh godov, 2 vols., ed. L. Ia. Ginzburg, commentary by V. E. Vatsuro (Leningrad, 1972), 1:398. As minister of education, Admiral Shishkov was with Nicholas during Polezhaev's interrogation.
30. Anton Kolomiets, "Aleksandr Bariatinskii," Rodina, 1994, no. 3-4:46-47.
31. A coinage of Italian futurists, la guerra festa (war as festival) is discussed in Mosse, Fallen Soldiers, 55.
32. V. A. Potto and N. N. Beliavskii, eds., Utverzhdenie russkago vladychestva na Kavkaze, 1801-1901 (Tiflis, 1904), vol. 3, pt. 2:584-85.
33. "Iz zapisok Nikolaia Nikolaevicha Murav'eva-Karskago," Russkii arkhiv 33, no. 1 (1895): 320. Murav'ev-Karskii adds that mounting casualties of the early 1840s made Russian officers, too, loathe to go to the Caucasus (323).
34. The fullest accounts of the poet's life are V. V. Baranov, "Biograficheskii ocherk,"
35. and L. B. Kamenev, "O Polezhaeve," both in A. I. Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia (Moscow-Leningrad, 1933), 65-126, and 17-18, 28-30.
36. See also V. Murav'ev, "Stikhi i zhizn' Aleksandra Polezhaeva," in A. I. Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia: Poemy (Moscow, 1981), 4-24. Murav'ev notes the lack of facts to support the widely believed story that Polezhaev was beaten in 1837 (22).
37. A. I. Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia i poemy, 3d ed. (Leningrad, 1987), 212.
38. Consult the discussion of obscenity's political import in this famous anthology that includes Polezhaev's "Sashka": N. Ogarev, Russkaia potaennaia literatura XIX stoletiia (London, 1861), i-lxiii.
39. On Polezhaev's appeal to youth, see P. A. Viskovatov, Mikhail Iur'evich Lermontov: Zhizn' i tvorchestvo (Moscow, 1891), 126;
40. and V. S. Kiselev-Sergenin, "'Bespriutnyi strannik v mire,'" in Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia i poemy, 3d ed., 19.
41. Iurii Tynianov, "Literaturnyi fakt," Arkhaisly i novatory (Leningrad, 1929), 26-29;
42. Boris Tomashevskii, "Literature and Biography," trans. Herbert Eagle, in Ladislav Matejka and Krystyna Pomorska, eds., Readings in Russian Poetics (Cambridge, Mass., 1971), 47-55;
43. and related analysis in Svetlana Boym, Death in Quotation Marks: Cultural Myths of the Modern Poet (Cambridge, Mass., 1991), 22-35.
44. Particularly germane to my study of Polezhaev's posthumous reputation is Stephen Moeller-Sally, "Parallel Lives: Gogol' 's Biography and Mass Readership in Late Imperial Russia," Slavic Review 54, no. 1 (Spring 1995): 63-65, 72-79.
45. See also Gregory Freidin, A Coat of Many Colors: Osip Mandelstam and His Mythologies of Self-Presentation (Berkeley, 1987), ix-x, 10-19, 31-37, 47;
46. Monika Greenleaf, Pushkin and Romantic Fashion: Fragment, Elegy, Orient, Irony (Stanford, 1994), 1-9, 56;
47. and the Bakhtinian study of distinctions between "author as person and author as creator" in Ian M. Helfant, "Sculpting a Persona: The Path from Pushkin's Caucasian Journal to Puteshestvie v Arzrum," Russian Review 56 (July 1997): 366-82.
48. Aleksandr Polezhaev, "Erpeli" i "Chir Iurt":Dve poemy (Moscow, 1832).
49. Susan Layton, Russian Literature and Empire: Conquest of the Caucasus from Pushkin to Tolstoy (Cambridge, Eng., 1994), 36-53.
50. My book also treats pertinent writings by Bestuzhev-Marlinskii and Lermontov Russian Literature and Empire: Conquest of the Caucasus from Pushkin to Tolstoy (178-91 and 222-28);
51. Polezhaev Russian Literature and Empire: Conquest of the Caucasus from Pushkin to Tolstoy (65-67, 160-62, 217-18); and
52. Pushkin's retreat from romanticism (62-65).
53. On the latter subject, consult also Greenleaf, Pushkin and Romantic Fashion, 138-55;
54. and Helfant, "Sculpting a Persona," 370-77.
55. In my usage, the sublime refers to the romantic poetics of Caucasian space that had Russian antecedents but derived largely from European traditions traced in Marjorie Hope Nicolson, Mountain Gloom and Glory: The Development of the Aesthetics of the Infinite (Ithaca, 1959).
56. For an alternative view, stressing parallels between poetry and empire, see Harsha Ram, "Russian Poetry and the Imperial Sublime," in Monika Greenleaf and Stephen Moeller-Sally, eds., Russian Subjects: Empire, Nation, and the Culture of the Golden Age (Evanston, 1998), 21-49.
57. P. A. Viazemskii, Sochineniia, 2 vols. (Moscow, 1982), 2:313.
58. On Polezhaev's problems with censors, see N. F. Bel'chikov, introduction to A. I. Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia i poemy, 2d ed. (Leningrad, 1957), 27-28;
59. and Kiselev-Sergenin, "'Bespriutnyi strannik,'" 493-95, 539, 544.
60. On the general issue of censorship concerning the Caucasian war, see V. G. Gadzhiev and A. M. Pikman, Velikie russkie revoliutsionnye demokraly o bor'be gortsev Dagestana i Chechni (Makhachkala, 1972), 16;
61. and P. S. Popov, ed., Pis'ma k A. V. Druzhininu (1850-1863) (Moscow, 1948), 174-75, 178.
62. The latter point is stressed in Kamenev, "O Polezhaeve," 17-18, 24-25;
63. N. F. Bez'iazychnyi, introduction to A. I. Polezhaev, Sochineniia (Moscow, 1955), 36-37;
64. and Bel'chikov, introduction to Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia i poemy, 2d ed., 23-24.
65. Contrary emphasis on Polezhaev's heroic voice appears in Kiselev-Sergenin, "'Bespriutnyi strannik,'" 38-40.
66. "Erpeli" bears the date 1830, and a Russian officer recalled hearing the poet read the work in July of that year: see S. A. Karpov and A. Korsakov, "Zametki o Belinskom, Lermontove, Polezhaeve i grafe Potemkine," Russkii arkhiv 19, no. 3 (1881): 459.
67. On Polezhaev's combat record, see P. A. Efremov, "Biograficheskii ocherk," in A. I. Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia (St. Petersburg, 1889), xl-xlii;
68. and Baranov, "Biograficheskii ocherk," 95, 100-103.
69. The Russian infantry's main weapon was the bayonet, as underlined in John Shelton Curtiss, The Russian Army under Nicholas I, 1825-1855 (Durham, 1965), 4, 123-24;
70. and Moshe Gammer, Muslim Resistance to the Tsar: Shamil and the Conquest of Chechnia and Daghestan (London, 1994), 302n23 and 306n2.
71. The events are recounted in N. A. Dubrovin, Kavkazskaia voina v tsarstvovanie imperatorov Nikolaia I i Aleksandra II (1825-1864 g.) (St. Petersburg, 1896), 14-16. Russian troops returned to destroy Erpeli in October 1831, as Dubrovin approvingly relates on page 47.
72. After surviving Siberia, the Decembrist I. I. Gorbachevskii expressed similar resentment toward Pushkin for having never suffered the "straits, humiliation, and deprivations, the hunger and cold that we suffered." Quoted in Baranov, "Biograficheskii ocherk," 29.
73. But on the anxieties (as well as the stimulation) of Pushkin's exile, see Stephanie Sandler, Distant Pleasures: Alexander Pushkin and the Writing of Exile (Stanford, 1989), 1-15.
74. Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia i poemy, 3d ed., 290, 282, 268-69.
75. Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia i poemy, 3d ed., Ibid., 269, 267.
76. Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia i poemy, 3d ed., Ibid., 261, 262, 280.
77. Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia i poemy, 3d ed., Ibid., 270, 264, 272-76.
78. Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia i poemy, 3d ed., Ibid., 290-92.
79. Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia i poemy, 3d ed., Ibid., 293-94.
80. Bakhtin, "Art and Answerability," 2.
81. Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia i poemy, 3d ed., 296.
82. Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia i poemy, 3d ed., Ibid., 304-5.
83. Such commerce is detailed in Thomas M. Barrett, "Crossing Boundaries: The Trading Frontiers of the Terek Cossacks," in Daniel R. Brower and Edward J. Lazzerini, eds., Russia's Orient: Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1750-1917 (Bloomington, 1997), 231-44.
84. Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia i poemy, 3d ed., 295, 296-97.
85. Compare V. V. Baranov's commentary on "Erpeli" in Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia i poemy, 2d ed., 443.
86. On the general syndrome, see William Ryan, Blaming the Victim, 2d ed. (New York, 1976).
87. Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia i poemy, 3d ed., 297, 300, 298, 297, 299, 300-302.
88. G. R. Derzhavin, Stikholvoreniia, 2d ed. (Leningrad, 1957), 157, 159.
89. V. A. Zhukovskii, Izbrannoe (Leningrad, 1973), 319, 325-30.
90. Polezhaev, Stikhotvonniia i poemy, 3d ed., 318, 309, 318, 317.
91. Polezhaev, Stikhotvonniia i poemy, 3d ed., Ibid., 317, 321.
92. Polezhaev, Stikhotvonniia i poemy, 3d ed., Ibid., 320-21.
93. For interpretation of the "misanthrope" as the imam, see R. F. Iusufov, Dagestan i russkaia literatura kontsa XVIII i pervoi polaviny XIX veka (Moscow, 1964), 176;
94. and Kiselev-Sergenin, "'Bespriutnyi strannik,'" 45.
95. See also I. D. Voronin, A. I. Polezhaev: Zhizn' i tvorchestvo (Saransk, 1954), 145-48.
96. Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia i poemy, 3d ed., 317.
97. Mark I. Goldman, "The Politics of Poetry: Randall Jarrell's War," South Atlantic Quarterly 86 (Spring 1987): 124.
98. V. A. Potto, Kavkazskaia voina v otdelnykh ocherkakh, epizodakh, legendakh i biografiiakh (Tiflis, 1890), vol. 5, pt. 2:177.
99. Cited in Bel'chikov, introduction to Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia i poemy, 2d ed., 22-23.
100. Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia i poemy, 3d ed., 126-27.
101. In A. I. Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia (Moscow, 1832), the French epigraph was used: see facsimile of title page in his Stikhotvoreniia i poemy, 2d ed. "Erpeli" i "Chir Iurt" used a standard English version that wrongly eliminates "shame": "Evil be to him who evil thinks."
102. Kiselev-Sergenin, "'Bespriutnyi strannik,'" 563; see reproduction of the lithograph between 160-61. Beneath the image, these four lines from Polezhaev's "Venok na grobe Pushkina" (A wreath on Pushkin's grave) appear: "I poeticheskie vezhdy / Somknula groznaia strela, / Togda kak svetlye nadezhdy / Vilis' vokrug ego chela!" (And a terrible arrow / Closed the poetic eyes, / While bright hopes / Hovered "round his brow!).
103. Severnaia pchela, 28 March 1833, no. 69:1;
104. Moskavskii telegraf, 1832, no. 16:566-70;
105. and Literaturnye pribavleniia k Russkomu Invalida, 1833, no. 13:102-4.
106. K. Makarov, "Vospominaniia o poete A. I. Polezhaeve," Istoricheskii vestnik 44 (April 1891): 114.
107. For the story about the censor, see Aleksandr Herzen, Sobranie sochineniia, 30 vols. (Moscow, 1954-64), 8:168.
108. V. G. Belinskii, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 13 vols. (Moscow, 1953-59), 6:127. Subsequent citations to this essay appear in the text.
109. M. Poliakov, "Studencheskie gody Belinskogo," Literaturnoe nasledstvo 56, pt. 2 (1950): 359-60.
110. Belinskii, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 6:146, 127.
111. "Spisok slishkom uzhe plokhikh stikhotvorenii, ne voshedshikh v eto izdanie," in A. Polezhaev, Stikhotvoreniia (Moscow, 1857), 209-10.
112. N. A. Dobroliubov, "Stikhotvoreniia A. Polezhaeva," Sobranie sochinenii, 9 vols. (Moscow-Leningrad, 1961-64), 2:47-53.
113. For the view of Russia as the Europeanized civilizer, see Dobroliubov "O znachenii nashikh poslednikh podvigov na Kavkaze," Sobranie sochinenii, 5:446-47.
114. Severnaia pchela, 20 August 1857, no. 180:1-2.
115. A. V. Druzhinin, "Stikhotvoreniia Polezhaeva," Sobranie sochinenii, 8 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1965-67), 7:427-28, 429, 432-33.
116. Druzhinin admired military heroism but found colonialism dispiriting, as argued in my "Colonial Mimicry and Disenchantment in Alexander Dnizhinin's 'A Russian Circassian,'" Russian Review (forthcoming).
117. A. A. Kotliarevskii, "Stikhotvoreniia Polezhaeva: Vtoroe izdanie," Sochineniia, 4 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1889-95), 1:417-39.
118. First published under the pseudonym Ek. S_t in Otechestvennye zapiski 126, no. 10, pt. 3 (1859): 86-101;
119. see bibliography by A. N. Pypin, in Kotliarevskii, Sochineniia, 4:i-cl.
120. Some recent, varied treatments of this long-standing issue are Mark Bassin, "Russia between Europe and Asia: The Ideological Construction of Geographical Space," Slavic Review 50, no. 1 (Spring 1991): 1-17;
121. Paul M. Austin, "The Exotic Prisoner in Russian Romanticism," Russian Literature 16-18 (October 1984): 217-29;
122. Layton, Russian Literature and Empire, 10, 71-88;
123. Greenleaf, Pushkin and Romantic Fashion, 108-14;
124. various contributions in Brower and Lazzerini, eds., Russia's Orient,
125. particularly Yuri Slezkine, "Naturalists versus Nations: Eighteenth-Century Russian Scholars Confront Ethnic Diversity," 27-57;
126. David Schimmelpenninck van der Oye, "Svet s Vostoka," Rodina, November 1995, no. 6:30-33;
127. and Katya Hokanson, "Pushkin's Captive Crimea: Imperialism in The Fountain of Bakhchisarai," in Greenleaf and Moeller-Sally, eds., Russian Subjects, 133-34.
128. Herzen revised Prison and Exile (London, 1854)
129. for Byloe i dumy, in Herzen, Sobranie sochineniia, 8:165-68.
130. Anon. introduction to A. I. Polezhaev, Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow, 1888), vi-ix.
131. N. V. Gerbel', Russkie poety v biografiiakh i obraztsakh, ed. P. Polevoi, 3d ed. (St. Petersburg, 1888), 319;
132. "A. I. Polezhaev," Zhivopisnoe obozreniie, 1888, no. 3:38;
133. and P. B_kov, "A. I. Polezhaev," Niva, 1888, no. 3:82. In fact, the military court preserved Polezhaev from corporal punishment in 1828, but Nicholas took the occasion to prohibit shortening the poet's twenty-five-year term of service.
134. D. D. Riabinin, "Aleksandr Polezhaev (1807-1838 [sic]). Biograficheskii ocherk," Russkii arkhiv 19, no. 1 (1881): 315, 336, 340-41, 351-55, 361-66.
135. Karpov and Korsakov, "Zametki o Belinskom, Lermontove, Polezhaeve," 460.
136. A. N. Pypin, "Zabytyi poet: A. I. Polzhaev i ego stikhotvoreniia," Vestnik Evropy 310 (March 1889): 153-97, esp. 153-58, 167-73, 178, 183-85.
137. The topos of rejuvenative nature also features in Petr Bykov, "A. I. Polezhaev," Vsemirnaia illiustratsiia, 1888, no. 991:54.
138. Nil Popov, "Novye svedeniia o Polezhaeve," Russkii arkhiv 19, no. 2 (1881): 471;
139. Efremov, "Biograficheskii ocherk," xviii-xxvi, xliii-xliv, liii-liv;
140. A. M. Skabichevskii, Ocherki istorii russkoi tsenzury (1700-1863 g.) (St. Petersburg, 1892), 217-19;
141. Makarov, "Vospominaniia o Polezhaeve," 110-13;
142. E. Belozerskii, "K biografii poeta A. I. Polezhaeva," Istoricheskii vestnik 61 (September 1895): 644-47;
143. and V. E. Iakushkin, "A. I. Polezhaev, ego zhizn' i poeziia," Vestnik Evropy 185 (June 1897): 717-29.
144. Makarov, "Vospominaniia o Polezhaeve," 115. I have seen eleven images of Polezhaev produced between 1838 and 1895.
145. Dubrovin, Kavkazskaia voina, 47-48.
146. See also D. I. Romanovskii, "Generalfel'dmarshal Kniaz' Aleksandr Ivanovich Bariatinskii i kavkazskaia voina, 1815-1879 gg," Russkaia starina 30 (February 1881): 304.
147. Denis Davydov, Zapiski v Rossii tsensuroiu nepropushchennyia (London, 1863), 41.
148. Apollon Grigor'ev, Sochineniia (St. Petersburg, 1876), 295-99.
149. Nikolai Lorer, Zapiski dekabrista (Moscow, 1931), 214.
150. Aleksandr Herzen, "MDCCCLXIII," Sobranie sochinenii, 17:10.
151. My bibliographical guide vainly argues that Herzen championed the mountaineers: Gadzhiev and Pikman, Velikie russkie revoliutsionnye demokraty, 14-26.
152. Compare Sandler, Distant Pleasures, 28-39, 163.
153. See similar remarks about the Russian public's displaying neither excitement nor guilt regarding imperialism in Yuri Slezkine, Arctic Mirrors: Russia and the Small Peoples of the North (Ithaca, 1994), 128-29n77;
154. and Daniel Brower, "Imperial Russia and Its Orient: The Renown of Nikolai Przhevalsky," Russian Review 53 (July 1994): 377-81.
155. Romanovskii, "General-fel'dmarshal Bariatinskii," 249-52, 287-89, 292.
156. Kolomiets, "Bariatinskii," 48.
157. On the general's glory days, see Thomas M. Barrett, "The Remaking of the Lion of Dagestan: Shamil in Captivity," Russian Review 53 (July 1994): 353-57;
158. and Alfred J. Rieber, ed., The Politics of Autocracy: Letters of Alexander II to Prince A. I. Bariatinskii (1857-1864) (Paris, 1966), 65-67.
159. Baron F. F. Tornov [Tornau], "Gergebil'," Russkii arkhiv 19, no. 2 (1881): 425. (Tornov discusses the preferred spelling of his name in a note on page 445.)
160. For songs, consult Vsevolod Sakharov, "Gvardeiskii Prometei, ili Kavkaz A. A. Bestuzheva-Marlinskogo,"
161. and Sergei Chekalin, "Posle boia," both in Rodina, 1994, no. 3-4:109-10 and 71;
162. and L. N. Tolstoi, "Nabeg" and Hadji Mural in Sobranie sochinenii, 12 vols. (Moscow, 1972-76), 2:16
163. and L. N. Tolstoi, Sobranie sochinenii, 12:355-56.
164. On theatrical spectacle, see Akty sobrannye kavkazskoiu arkheograficheskoiu kommissieiu, 12 vols. (Tiflis, 1866-96), 11:903-6.
165. For heroic Cossack battle lore, see Thomas M. Barrett, "Lines of Uncertainty: The Frontiers of the North Caucasus," Slavic Review 54, no. 3 (Fall 1995): 600-601.
166. Russia would also erect monuments to the army in the Caucasus, as detailed in V. A. Potto, Pamiatniki vremen utverzhdeniia russkago vladychestva na Kavkaze, 2 vols. (Tiflis, 1906 and 1909). My thanks to Valérie Le Galcher-Baron for this reference.
167. A. I. Polezhaev, "Ai, akhti, ikh, ura / Pravoslavnyi nash tsar'," Stikholvoreniia i poemy, 3d ed., 199-200;
168. see also I. N. Rozanov, ed., Pesni russkikh poetov (XVIII-pervaia polovina XIX veka) (Leningrad, 1936), xxxv.
169. Brower, "Imperial Russia and Its Orient," 367-81;
170. Louise McReynolds, The News under Russia's Old Regime: The Development of a Mass-Circulation Press (Princeton, 1991), 82-86;
171. William H. Schneider, An Empire for the Masses: The French Popular Image of Africa, 1870-1900 (Westport, 1982), 72, 117-20, 191-92;
172. and Robert Giddings, "Cry God for Harry, England and Lord Kitchener: A Tale of Tel-el-Kebir, Suakin, Wadi Halfa and Omdurman," in Robert Giddings, ed., Literature and Imperialism (Houndsmills, 1991), 201-5.
173. Arkhiv kniazia Vorontsova, 40 vols. (Moscow, 1882-97), 36:259;
174. cited in Semen Ekshtut, "Aleksei Ermolov," Rodina, 1994, no. 3-4:32.
175. Kolomiets, "Bariatinskii," 47.
176. "Lermontovskii muzei v Nikolaevskom Kavaleriiskom Uchilishche," Russkaia starina 30 (March 1881): 713;
177. and "Otkrytie Lermontovskogo muzeia, 18 dek. 1883 g.," Russkaia starina 41 (January 1884): 240.
178. Viskovatov, Lermontov, 129, 336-37.
179. I borrow the quoted term from Francis Spufford, "The War That Never Stopped"
180. [review of Joanna Bourke, Dismembering the Male], Times Literary Supplement, 22 March 1996, 12.
181. F. Iukhotnikov, "Pis'ma s Kavkaza," Russkoe slovo, April 1861, no. 3:9-13, esp. 12.
182. Herzen, Du développement des idées révolutionnaires en Russie, in Sobranie sochinenii, 7:52, 81, 88;
183. "La conspiration russe de 1825," Sobranie sochinenii, ibid., 13:124;
184. and "Avgusteishie puteshestvenniki," Sobranie sochinenii, ibid., 13:16.
185. A military geographer, Veniukov is quoted in Gadzhiev and Pikman, Velikie russkie revoliutsionnye demokraty, 25.
186. Those authors fail to note Veniukov's insensitivity to the mountaineers' suffering, as evident in his "Kavkazskie vospominaniia (1861-1863)," Russkii arkhiv 18, no. 1 (1880): 419.
187. "Iz zapisok Murav'eva-Karskago," 323. Murav'ev-Karskii served as Caucasian viceroy from 1854 to 1856.
188. F. von-Kliman, "Voina na vostochnom Kavkaze s 1824 po 1835 g. v sviazi s miuridizmom," Kavkazskii sbornik 15 (1894): 522-23.
189. Wirtschafter, From Serf to Russian Soldier, 109.