Deliberate practice and the modifiability of body and mind: Toward a science of the structure and acquisition of expert and elite performance

International Journal of Sport Psychology

Volumn 38, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 4-34

  Ericsson, K Anders ^a  

^a FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

DNA; Genes; Performance

Indexed keywords

EID: 34147101534     PISSN: 00470767     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (97)

1. Abernethy, B. (1991). Visual search strategies and decision-making in sport. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 22,189-210.
2. Abernethy, B., Farrow, D., & Berry, J. (2003). Constraints and issues in the development of a general theory of expert perceptual-motor performance: A critique of the deliberate practice framework. In J. Starkes and K. A. Ericsson (Eds.), Expert performance in sport: Recent advances in research on sport expertise (pp. 349-369). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
3. Abernethy, B., Gill, D. P., Parks, S. L., & Packer, S. T. (2001). Expertise and the perception of kinematic and situational probability information. Perception, 30, 233-252.
4. Abernethy, B., Neal, R. J., & Koning, P. (1994). Visual-perceptual and cognitive differences between expert, intermediate, and novice snooker players. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18, 185-211.
5. Baker, J., Côté, J., & Deakin, J. (2005). Cognitive characteristics of expert, middle of the pcak, and back of the pack ultra-endurance triathletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 6, 551-558.
6. Bengtsson, S. L., Nagy, Z., Skare, S., Forsman, L., Forssberg, H., & Ullen, F. (2005). Extensive piano practicing has regionally specific effects on white matter development. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 1148-1150.
7. Bloom, B. S. (1985). Generalizations about talent development. In B. S. Bloom (Ed.), Developing talent in young people (pp. 507-549). New York: Ballantine Books.
8. Bouchard, C., An, P., Rice, T., Skinner, J. S., Wilmore, J. H., Gagnon, J., Perusse, L., Leon, A. S., & Rao, D. C. (1999). Familial aggregation of VO2max response to exercise training: Results form the HERITAGE Family study. Journal of Applied Physiology, 87, 1003-1008.
9. Bouchard, C., Daw, E. F., Rice, T., Perusse, L., Gagnon, J., Province, M. A., Leon, A. S., Rao, D. C., Skinner, J. S., & Wilmore, J. H, (1998). Familial resemblance for VO2max in the sedentary state: the HERITAGE family study. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30, 252-258.
10. Bouchard, C., Leon, A. S., Rao, D.C., Skinner, J. S., Wilmore, J. H., & Gagnon, J. (1995). The HERITAGE family study: Aims, desing, and measurement protocol. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27, 721-729.
11. Bouchard, C., Lesage, R., Lortie, G., Simoneau, J.-A., Hamel, P., Boulay, M. R., Perusse, L., Theriault, G., & Leblanc C. (1986). Aerobic performance in brothers, dizgotic and monozygotic twins. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 18, 639-646.
12. Bouchard, C., Simoneau, J. A., Lortie, G., Boulay, M. R., Marcotte, M., & Thibault, M. C. (1986). Genetic effects in human skeletal muscle fiber type distribution and enzyme activities. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 64, 1245-1251.
13. Bouchard, T. J. Jr., & Lykken, D. T. (1999). Genetic and environmental influence on correlates of creativity. In N. Colangelo & S. G. Assouline (Eds.), Talent development III: Proceedings from the 1995 Henry B. & Jocelyn Wallace national symposium on talent development (pp. 81-97) Scottsdale, AZ: Gifted Psychology Press, Inc.
14. Camerer, C. F., & Johnson, E. J. (1991). The process-performance paradox in expert judgment: How can the experts know so much and predict so badly? In K. A. Ericsson and J. Smith (Eds.), Towards a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits (pp. 195-217). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
15. Carson, J. A., Nettleton, d., & Reecy, J. M. (2001). Differential gene expression in the rat soleus muscle during early work overload-induced hypertrophy. FASEB Journal, 15, U261-U281.
16. Charness, N., & Gerlack, Y. (1996). Participation rates and maximal performance: A log-linear explanation for group differences, such as Russian and male dominance in chess. Psychological Science, 7, 46-51.
17. Charness, N., Tuffiash, M. I., Krampe, R., Reingold, E. & Vasyukova E. (2005). The role of deliberate practice in chess expertise. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 19, 151-165.
18. Chase, W. G., & Ericsson, K. A. (1981). Skilled memory. In J. R. Anderson (Ed.), Cognitive skills and their acquisition (pp. 141-189). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
19. Chase, W. G., & Ericsson, K. A. (1982). Skill and working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 16, pp. 1-58). New York: Academic Press.
20. Chi, M. T. H., Glaser, R., & Rees, E. (1982). Expertise in problem solving. In R. S. Sternberg (Ed.). Advances in the psychology of human intelligence (Vol. 1, pp. 1-75). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
21. Choudhrey, N. K., Fletcher, R. H., & Soumerai, S. B. (2005). Systematic review: the relationship between clinical experience and quality of health care. Annals of Internal Medicine, 142, 260-73.
22. Coffey, V. G., Shield, A., Canny, B. J., Carey, K. A., Camerion-Smith, D., & Hawley, J. A. (2006). Interaction of contractile activity & training history on mRNA abundance in skeletal muscle from trained athletes. American Journal of Physiology, Endocrinology, and Metabolism, 290, E849-E855.
23. Conley, D. L., & Krahenbuhl, G. S. (1980). Running economy and distance running performance of highly trained athletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 12, 357-360.
24. Côté, J., MacDonald, D. J., Baker, J. & Abernethy, B. (2006). When "where" is more important than "when": Birthplace and birthdate effects on the achievement of sporting expertise. Journal of Sport Sciences, 24, 1065-1073.
25. Côté, J., Ericsson, K. A. & Law, M. (2005). Tracing the development of athletes using retrospective interview methods: A proposed interview and validation procedure for reported information. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 17, 1-19.
26. Coyle, E. F., Feltner, M. E., Kautz, S. A., Hamilton, M. T., Montain, S. J., Baylor, A. M., Abraham, L. D., & Petrek, G. W. (1991) Physiological and biomechanical factors associated with elite endurance cycling performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 23, 93-107.
27. Dawes, R. M. (1994). House of cards: Psychology and psychotherapy built on myth. New York: Free Press.
28. de Groot, A. (1978). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague: Mouton (Original work published 1946).
29. Duffy, L. J., Baluch, B., & Ericsson, K. A. (2004). Dart performance as a function of facets of practice amongst professional and amateur men and women players. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 35, 232-245.
30. Ericsson, K. A. (1996). The acquisition of expert performance: An introduction to some of the issues. In K. A. Ericsson (Ed.), The road to excellence: The acquisition of expert performance in the arts and sciences, sports, and games (pp. 1-50). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
31. Ericsson, K. A. (1998a). The scientific study of expert levels of performance: General implications for optimal learning and creativity. High Ability Studies, 9, 75-100.
32. Ericsson, K. A. (1998b). Basic capacities can be modified or circumvented by deliberate practice: A rejection of talent accounts of expert performance. A commentary on M. J. A. Howe, J. W Davidson, and J. A. Sloboda "Innate Talents: Reality or Myth?" Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21, 413-414.
33. Ericsson, K.A. (2001). The path to expert golf performance: Insights from the masters on how to improve performance by deliberate practice. In P. R. Thomas (Ed,), Optimising performance in golf (pp. 1-57). Brisbane, Australia: Australian Academic Press.
34. Ericsson, K. A. (2002). Attaining excellence through deliberate practice: Insights from the study of expert performance. In M. Ferrari (Ed.), The pursuit of excellence in education (pp. 21-55). Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.
35. Ericsson, K. A. (2003a). Exceptional memorizers: Made, not born. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 233-235.
36. Ericsson, K. A. (2003b). The development of elite performance and deliberate practice: An update from the perspective of the expert-performance approach. In J. Starkes and K. A. Ericsson (Eds.), Expert performance in sport: Recent advances in research on sport expertise (pp. 49-81). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
37. Ericsson, K. A. (2003c). How the expert-performance approach differs from traditional approaches to expertise in sports: In search of a shared theoretical framework for studying expert performance. In J. Starkes and K. A. Ericsson (Eds.), Expert performance in sport: Recent advances in research on sport expertise (pp. 371-401). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
38. Ericsson, K. A. (2004). Deliberate practice and the acquisition and maintenance of expert performance in medicine and related domains. Academic Medicine, 10, S1-S12.
39. Ericsson, K. A., Chase, W. G., & Faloon, S. (1980). Acquisition of a memory skill. Science, 208, 1181-1182.
40. Ericsson, K. A., Delaney, P. F., Weaver, G., & Mahadevan, R. (2004). Uncovering the structure of a memorist's superior "basic" memory capacity. Cognitive Psychology, 49, 191-237.
41. Ericsson, K. A., & Kintsch, W. (1995). Long-term working memory. Psychological Review, 102, 211-245.
42. Ericsson, K.A., Krampe, R.T. & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 363-406.
43. Ericsson, K. A., & Lehmann, A. C. (1996). Expert and exceptional performance: Evidence on maximal adaptations on task constraints. Annual Review of Psychology, 47, 273-305.
44. Ericsson, K. A., & Oliver, W. (1988). Methodology for laboratory research on thinking: Task selection, collection of observation and data analysis. In R. J. Sternberg and E. E. Smith (Eds.), The psychology of human thought (pp. 392-428). Cambridge University Press.
45. Ericsson, K. A., Patel, V. L., & Kintsch, W. (2000). How experts' adaptations to representative task demands account for the expertise effect in memory recall: Comment on Vicente and Wang (1998). Psychological Review, 107, 578-592.
46. Ericsson, K. A., & Smith, J. (1991). Prospects and limits in the empirical study of expertise: An introduction. In K. A. Ericsson and J. Smith (Eds.), Toward a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits (pp. 1-38). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
47. Fitts, P., & Posner, M. I. (1967). Human performance. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
48. nd edition) (pp. 501-602). San Diego: Academic Press.
49. Goldspink, G. (2003). Gene expression in muscle in response to exercise. Journal of Muscle Research and Cell Motility, 24, 121-126.
50. Helgerud, J., Engen, L. G., Wisloff, U., & Hoff, J. (2001). Aerobic endurance training improves soccer performance. Medicine and science in Sports and Exercise, 33, 1925-1931.
51. Helson, W. F., & Starkes, J. L. (1999). A multidimensional approach to skilled perception and performance in sport. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 13, 1-27.
52. Helsen, W. F., Starkes, J. L., & Hodges, N. J. (1998). Team sports and the theory of deliberate practice. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 20, 12-34.
53. Helsen, W. F., van Winckel, J., & Williams, A. M. (2005). The relative age effect in youth soccer across Europe. Journal of Sports Science, 23, 629-36.
54. Higbee, K. L. (1997). Novices, apprentices, and mnemonists: Acquiring expertise with the phonetic mnemonic. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 11, 147-161.
55. Hopkins, W. G., & Hewson, D. J. (2001). Variability of competitive performance of distance runners. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 33, 1588-1592.
56. Howe, M. J. A. (1990). The origins of exceptional abilities. Oxford, U.K.: Basil Blackwell
57. Iemitsu, M., Maeda, S., Miyauchi, T., Matsuda, M., & Tanaka, H. (2005). Gene expression profiling of exercise-induced cardiac hypertrophy in rats. Acta Physiologica Sandinavica, 185, 259-270.
58. Janelle, C. M., & Hillman, C. H. (2003). Expert performance in sport: Current perspectives and critical issues. In J. Starkes and K. A. Ericsson (Eds,), Expert performance in sport: Recent advances in research on sport expertise (pp. 19-45). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
59. Klissouras, V., Casini, B., Di Salvo, V., Faina, M., Marini, C., Pigozzi, F., Pittaluga, M.,Spataro, A., Taddei, F., & Parisi, P. (2001). Genes and Olympic performance: a co-twin study. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 22, 250-255.
60. Komi, P. V., Viitasalo, J. H. T., Havu, M., Thorstensson, A., Sjodin, B., & Karlsson, J. (1977). Skeletal muscle fibres and muscle enzyme activities in monozygotic and dizygotic twins of both sexes. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 100, 385-392.
61. Krampe, R. Th., & Ericsson, K. A. (1996). Maintaining excellence: Deliberate practice and elite performance in young and older pianists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 125, 331-359.
62. Larsen, H. B., Nolan, T., Borch, C., & Sondrgaard, H. (2005). Training response of adolescent Kenyan town and village boys to endurance running, Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 15, 48-57.
63. Legaz, A., & Eston, R. (2005). Changes in performance, skinfold thicknesses, and fat patterning after three years of intense athletic conditioning in high level runners. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39, 851-856.
64. Maguire, E. A., Valentine, E. R., Wilding, J. M., & Kapur, N. (2003). Routes to remembering: the brains behind superior memory. Nature Neuroscience, 6, 90-95.
65. Masters, K. S., & Ogles, B. M. (1998). Associative and dissociative cognitive strategies in exercise and running: 20 years later, what do we know? The Sport Psychologist, 12, 253-270.
66. MacArthur, D. G., & North, K. N. (2005). Genes and human elite athletic performance. Human Genetics, 116, 331-339.
67. McPherson, S., & Kernodle, M. W. (2003). Tactics, the neglected attribute of expertise: Problem representations and performance skills in tennis. In J. Starkes and K. A. Ericsson (Eds.), Expert performance in sport: Recent advances in research on sport expertise (pp. 137-164). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
68. Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits of our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97.
69. Musch J., & Hay, R. (1999). The relative age effect in soccer: Cross-cultural evidence for a systematic discrimination against children born late in the competition year. Sociology of Sport Journal, 16, 54-64.
70. Nevett, M. E., & French, K. E. (1997). The development of sport-specific planning, rehearsal, and updating of plans during defensive youth baseball game performance. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 68, 203-214.
71. Onywera, V. O., Scott, R. A., Boit, M. K., & Pitsiladis, Y. P. (2006). Demographic characteristics of elite Kenyan endurance runners. Journal of Sport Sciences, 24, 415-422.
72. Pantev, C., Ross, B., Fujioka, T., Schulte, M., & Schulz, M. (2003).Music and learning-induced cortical plasticity. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 999, 438-450.
73. Pelliccia, A., Maron, B. J., de Luca, R., di Paolo, F. M., Spataro, A., & Culasso, F. (2002). Remodeling of left ventricular hypertrophy in elite athletes after long-term deconditioning. Circulation, 105, 944-949.
74. Perhonen, M. A., Franco, F., Lane, L. D., Buckey, J. C., Blomquist, C. G., Zerwekh, J. E., Peshock, R. M., Weatherall, P. T., & Levine, B. D. (2001). Cardiac atrophy after bed rest and space flight. Journal of Applied Physiology, 91, 645-653.
75. Pieper, H.-G. (1998). Humeral torsion in the throwing arm of handball players. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 26, 247-253.
76. Prior, B. M., Yang, H. T., & Terjung, R. L. (2004), What makes vessels grow with exercise training? Journal of Applied Physiology, 97, 1119-1128.
77. Prod'homme, D., Bouchard, C., Leblanc, C., Landry, F., & Fontaine, E. (1984). Sensitivity of maximal aerobic power to training is genotype-dependent. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 16, 489-493.
78. Pyne, D. B., Trewin, C. B., & Hopkins, W. G. (2004) Progression and variability of competitive performance of Olympic swimmers. Journal of Sports Sciences, 22, 613-620.
79. Robergs, R. A., & Roberts, S. O. (1997). Exercise physiology: Exercise, performance, and clinical applications. St. Louis, MO: Mosby-Year Book
80. Salthouse, T. A. (1984). Effects of age and skill in typing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 113, 345-371.
81. Scott, R. A., Moran, C., Wilson, R. H., Onywera, V., Boit, M. K., Goodwin, W. H., Gohlke, P., Payne, J., Montgomery, H., & Pitsiladis, Y. P. (2005). No association between Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) gene variation and endurance athlete status in Kenyans. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A., 141, 169-175.
82. Shanteau, J., & Stewart, T. R. (1992). Why study expert decision making? Some historical perspectives and comments. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 53, 95-106.
83. Shea, J. B., & Paull, G. (1996). Capturing expertise in sports. In K. A. Ericsson (Ed.), The road to excellence: The acquisition of expert performance in the arts and sciences, sports, and games (pp. 321-335). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
84. Shephard, R. J. (1994). Aerobic fitness & health. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
85. Schulz, R., & Curnow, C. (1988). Peak performance and age among superathletes: Track and field, swimming, baseball, tennis, and golf. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 43, 113-120.
86. Simon, H. A., & Chase, W. G. (1973). Skill in chess. American Scientist, 61, 394-403.
87. Starkes, J. L., & Deakin, J. (1984). Perception in sport: a cognitive approach to skilled performance. In W. F. Straub and J. M. Williams (Eds.), Cognitive sport psychology (pp. 115-128). Lansing, NY: Sport Science Associates.
88. Starkes, J. L., Deakin, J., Allard, F., Hodges, N. J., & Hayes, A. (1996). Deliberate practice in sports: What is it anyway? In K. A. Ericsson (Ed.), The road to excellence: The acquisition of expert performance in the arts and sciences, sports, and games (pp. 81-106). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
89. Starkes, J. L., Edwards, P., Dissanayake, P., & Dunn, T. (1995). A new technology and field test of advance cue usage in Volleyball. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 66, 162-167.
90. St Clair Gibson, A., & Noakes, T. D. (2004). Evidence for complex system integration and dynamic neural regulation of skeletal muscle recruitment during exercise in humans. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 38, 797-806.
91. van der Maas, H. L. J. & Wagenmakers, E. J. (2005). A psychometric analysis of chess expertise. American Journal of Psychology, 118, 29-60.
92. Wahlsten, D. (1999). Single-gene influences on brain and behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 599-624.
93. Ward, P., Hodges, N. J., Williams, A. M., & Starkes, J. L. (2004). Deliberate practice and expert performance: Defining the path to excellence. In A. M. Williams and N. J. Hodges (Eds.), Skill acquisition in sport: Research, theory and practice (pp. 231-258). London, UK: Routhledge.
94. Wilding, J., & Valentine, E. (1997). Superior memory. Hove, East Sussex, UK: Psychology Press.
95. Williams, A. M., & Ward, P. (2003). Perceptual expertise: Development in sport. In J. Starkes and K. A. Ericsson (Eds.), Expert performance in sport: Recent advances in research on sport expertise (pp. 219-247). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
96. Wittwer, M., Billester, R., Hoppeler, H., & Fluck, M. (2004). Regulatory gene expression in skeltal muscle of highly endurance trained humans, Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 180, 217-227.
97. Young, L. T., Rogers, K., & Wood, J. L. N. (2005). Left ventricular size and systolic function in Thoroughbred race horses and their relationship to race performance. Journal of Applied Physiology, 99, 1278-1285.