메뉴 건너뛰기




Volumn 67, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 315-330

Affirmative action and its alternatives in public universities: What do we know?

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords


EID: 34147092283     PISSN: 00333352     EISSN: 15406210     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6210.2007.00715.x     Document Type: Review
Times cited : (59)

References (73)
  • 1
    • 28844499998 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Assessing the "Mismatch" Hypothesis: Differentials in College Graduation Rates by Institutional Selectivity
    • Alon, Sigal, and Marta Tienda. 2005. Assessing the "Mismatch" Hypothesis: Differentials in College Graduation Rates by Institutional Selectivity. Sociology of Education 78(4): 294-315.
    • (2005) Sociology of Education , vol.78 , Issue.4 , pp. 294-315
    • Alon, S.1    Tienda, M.2
  • 2
    • 34147159884 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Arcidiacono, Peter, and Jacob L. Vigdor. 2004a. On the Value of Inter-Racial Contact and Affirmative Action as a Means to Achieve It. http://trinity.aas.duke.edu/-jvigdor/knewmin4.pdf [accessed January 30, 2007].
    • Arcidiacono, Peter, and Jacob L. Vigdor. 2004a. On the Value of Inter-Racial Contact and Affirmative Action as a Means to Achieve It. http://trinity.aas.duke.edu/-jvigdor/knewmin4.pdf [accessed January 30, 2007].
  • 3
    • 34147098693 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Estimating the Economic Returns to Attending a Racially Diverse College, accessed January 30
    • _. 2004b Does the River Spill Over? Estimating the Economic Returns to Attending a Racially Diverse College. http://trinity.aas.duke.edu/-jvigdor/cb6. pdf [accessed January 30, 2007].
    • (2004) Does the River Spill Over
    • Alon, S.1    Tienda, M.2
  • 5
    • 2342523280 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • How Robust Is the Evidence on the Effects of College Quality? Evidence from Matching
    • Black, Dan A., and Jeffrey A. Smith. 2004a. How Robust Is the Evidence on the Effects of College Quality? Evidence from Matching. Journal of Econometrics 121(1-2): 99-124.
    • (2004) Journal of Econometrics , vol.121 , Issue.1-2 , pp. 99-124
    • Black, D.A.1    Smith, J.A.2
  • 8
    • 0033057795 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Does It Pay to Attend an Elite Private College? Cross-Cohort Evidence on the Effects of College Type on Earnings
    • Brewer, Dominic J., Eric Eide, and Ronald G. Ehrenberg. 1999. Does It Pay to Attend an Elite Private College? Cross-Cohort Evidence on the Effects of College Type on Earnings. Journal of Human Resources 34(1): 104-23.
    • (1999) Journal of Human Resources , vol.34 , Issue.1 , pp. 104-123
    • Brewer, D.J.1    Eide, E.2    Ehrenberg, R.G.3
  • 9
    • 33745679377 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The End of Affirmative Action in Washington State and Its Impact on the Transition from High School to College
    • Brown, Susan K, and Charles Hirschman. 2006. The End of Affirmative Action in Washington State and Its Impact on the Transition from High School to College. Sociology of Education 79(2): 106-130.
    • (2006) Sociology of Education , vol.79 , Issue.2 , pp. 106-130
    • Brown, S.K.1    Hirschman, C.2
  • 11
    • 84937258937 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Race-Based versus Class-Based Affirmative Action in College Admissions
    • Cancian, Maria. 1998. Race-Based versus Class-Based Affirmative Action in College Admissions. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 17(1): 94-105.
    • (1998) Journal of Policy Analysis and Management , vol.17 , Issue.1 , pp. 94-105
    • Cancian, M.1
  • 12
    • 20044379997 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Would the Elimination of Affirmative Action Affect Highly Qualified Minority Applicants? Evidence from California and Texas
    • Card, David, and Alan B. Krueger. 2005. Would the Elimination of Affirmative Action Affect Highly Qualified Minority Applicants? Evidence from California and Texas. Industrial and Labor Relations Review 58(3): 416-34.
    • (2005) Industrial and Labor Relations Review , vol.58 , Issue.3 , pp. 416-434
    • Card, D.1    Krueger, A.B.2
  • 13
    • 2942746557 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Does Banning Affirmative Action Lower College Student Quality?
    • Chan, Jimmy, and Erik Eyster. 2003. Does Banning Affirmative Action Lower College Student Quality? American Economic Review 93(3): 858-72.
    • (2003) American Economic Review , vol.93 , Issue.3 , pp. 858-872
    • Chan, J.1    Eyster, E.2
  • 14
    • 34147104141 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • High School Student Mobility and Texas' Top-Ten Percent Rule, accessed January 31, 2007
    • Cullen, Julie Berry, Mark C. Long, and Randall Reback. 2006. Jockeying for Position: High School Student Mobility and Texas' Top-Ten Percent Rule. www.econ.ucsb.edu/seminar/papers/f06/cullen.pdf [accessed January 31, 2007].
    • (2006) Jockeying for Position
    • Cullen, J.B.1    Long, M.C.2    Reback, R.3
  • 15
    • 0036866094 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Estimating the Payoff to Attending a More Selective College: An Application of Selection on Observables and Unobservables
    • Dale, Stacey Berg, and Alan B. Krueger. 2002. Estimating the Payoff to Attending a More Selective College: an Application of Selection on Observables and Unobservables. Quarterly Journal, of Economics 117(4): 1491-1528.
    • (2002) Quarterly Journal, of Economics , vol.117 , Issue.4 , pp. 1491-1528
    • Dale, S.B.1    Krueger, A.B.2
  • 17
    • 34147131467 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Racial Differences in the Effects of College Quality and Student Body Diversity on Wages
    • edited by Gary Orfield and Michal Kurlaender, Cambridge, MA: Civil Rights Project at Harvard University
    • _. 2001. Racial Differences in the Effects of College Quality and Student Body Diversity on Wages. In Diversity Challenged: Evidence on the Impact of Affirmative Action, edited by Gary Orfield and Michal Kurlaender, 221-32. Cambridge, MA: Civil Rights Project at Harvard University.
    • (2001) Diversity Challenged: Evidence on the Impact of Affirmative Action , pp. 221-232
    • Daniel, K.1    Black, D.2    Smith, J.3
  • 18
    • 29844458906 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Does Ending Affirmative Action in College Admissions Lower the Percent of Minority Students Applying to College?
    • Dickson, Lisa M. 2006. Does Ending Affirmative Action in College Admissions Lower the Percent of Minority Students Applying to College? Economics of Education Review 25(1): 109-19.
    • (2006) Economics of Education Review , vol.25 , Issue.1 , pp. 109-119
    • Dickson, L.M.1
  • 20
    • 22944487702 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Beyond Gratz and Grutter: Prospects for Affirmative Action in the Aftermath of the Supreme Court's Michigan Decisions
    • Elliott, Euel W., and Andrew I.E. Ewoh. 2005. Beyond Gratz and Grutter: Prospects for Affirmative Action in the Aftermath of the Supreme Court's Michigan Decisions. Review of Policy Research 22(4): 541-53.
    • (2005) Review of Policy Research , vol.22 , Issue.4 , pp. 541-553
    • Elliott, E.W.1    Ewoh, A.I.E.2
  • 22
    • 20444492458 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Opportunity Cost of Admission Preferences at Elite Universities
    • Espenshade, Thomas J., and Chang Y. Chung. 2005. The Opportunity Cost of Admission Preferences at Elite Universities. Social Science Quarterly 86(2): 293-305.
    • (2005) Social Science Quarterly , vol.86 , Issue.2 , pp. 293-305
    • Espenshade, T.J.1    Chung, C.Y.2
  • 23
    • 11844270439 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Admission Preferences for Minority Students, Athletes, and Legacies at Elite Universities
    • Espenshade, Thomas J., Chang Y. Chung, and Joan L. Walling. 2004. Admission Preferences for Minority Students, Athletes, and Legacies at Elite Universities. Social Science Quarterly 85(5): 1422-46.
    • (2004) Social Science Quarterly , vol.85 , Issue.5 , pp. 1422-1446
    • Espenshade, T.J.1    Chung, C.Y.2    Walling, J.L.3
  • 24
    • 34147106687 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Class-Rank Plan Faces Trouble in Texas
    • April 22
    • Fischer, Karin. 2005. Class-Rank Plan Faces Trouble in Texas. Chronicle of Higher Education, April 22.
    • (2005) Chronicle of Higher Education
    • Fischer, K.1
  • 25
    • 34147124600 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Gates, Robert M. 2003. Statement by Texas A&M President Robert M. Gates, December 3. www.tamu.edu/president/speeches/ [accessed January 30, 2007].
    • Gates, Robert M. 2003. Statement by Texas A&M President Robert M. Gates, December 3. www.tamu.edu/president/speeches/ [accessed January 30, 2007].
  • 26
    • 33847366874 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • U.S
    • Grutter v. Bollinger. 539 U.S. 306 (2003).
    • (2003) Bollinger , vol.539 , pp. 306
    • Grutter1
  • 27
    • 0038920006 scopus 로고
    • Affirmative Action
    • Hacker, Andrew. 1995. Affirmative Action. Dissent 42(4): 465-567.
    • (1995) Dissent , vol.42 , Issue.4 , pp. 465-567
    • Hacker, A.1
  • 28
    • 34147170170 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hanson, Gary R., and Lawrence Burt. Responding to Hopwood: Using Policy Analysis Research to Re-Design Scholarship Criteria. Research report, University of Texas at Austin, www.utexas.edu/student/research/reports/Hopwood/ Hopwood.html [accessed January 30, 2007].
    • Hanson, Gary R., and Lawrence Burt. Responding to Hopwood: Using Policy Analysis Research to Re-Design Scholarship Criteria. Research report, University of Texas at Austin, www.utexas.edu/student/research/reports/Hopwood/ Hopwood.html [accessed January 30, 2007].
  • 32
    • 0000647958 scopus 로고
    • College Quality and Future Earnings: Where Should You Send Your Child to College?
    • James, Estelle, Nabeel Alsalam, Joseph C. Conaty, and Duc-Le To. 1989. College Quality and Future Earnings: Where Should You Send Your Child to College? American Economic Review 79(2): 247-52.
    • (1989) American Economic Review , vol.79 , Issue.2 , pp. 247-252
    • James, E.1    Alsalam, N.2    Conaty, J.C.3    To, D.4
  • 33
    • 34147148237 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Florida Governor Stands by Plan to Boost Minority Enrollment at Universities
    • October 27
    • James, Joni. 2002. Florida Governor Stands by Plan to Boost Minority Enrollment at Universities. Miami Herald, October 27.
    • (2002) Miami Herald
    • James, J.1
  • 35
    • 0003165738 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Racial and Ethnic Preferences in College Admissions
    • edited by Christopher Jencks, and Meredith Phillips, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press
    • Kane, Thomas J. 1998a. Racial and Ethnic Preferences in College Admissions. In The Black-White Test Score Gap, edited by Christopher Jencks, and Meredith Phillips, 431-56. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
    • (1998) The Black-White Test Score Gap , pp. 431-456
    • Kane, T.J.1
  • 36
    • 0040843925 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Misconceptions in the Debate over Affirmative Action
    • edited by Gary Orfield and Edward Miller, Cambridge, MA: Civil Rights Project at Harvard University
    • _. 1998b. Misconceptions in the Debate over Affirmative Action. In Chilling Admissions: The Affirmative Action Crisis and the Search for Alternatives, edited by Gary Orfield and Edward Miller, 17-32. Cambridge, MA: Civil Rights Project at Harvard University.
    • (1998) Chilling Admissions: The Affirmative Action Crisis and the Search for Alternatives , pp. 17-32
    • Kane, T.J.1
  • 37
    • 34147092322 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Working paper, Harvard University, John F. Kennedy School of Government, accessed January 30
    • _. 2000. Basing College Admission on High School Class Rank. Working paper, Harvard University, John F. Kennedy School of Government. www.texastop10.princeton.edu/reports/misc/basing_college_admission.pdf [accessed January 30, 2007].
    • (2000) Basing College Admission on High School Class Rank
    • Kane, T.J.1
  • 38
    • 34147149856 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Racial and Ethnic Preference
    • Brookings Institution, accessed January 30
    • Kane, Thomas J., and William T. Dickens. 1996. Racial and Ethnic Preference. Policy Brief No. 9, Brookings Institution, www.brookings.edu/comm/ policybriefs/pb09.htm [accessed January 30, 2007].
    • (1996) Policy Brief , Issue.9
    • Kane, T.J.1    Dickens, W.T.2
  • 39
    • 0039922718 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • No Alternative: The Effect of Color-Blind Admissions in California
    • edited by Gary Orfield and Edward Miller, Cambridge, MA: Civil Rights Project at Harvard University
    • Karabel, Jerome. 1998. No Alternative: The Effect of Color-Blind Admissions in California. In Chilling Admissions: The Affirmative Action Crisis and the Search for Alternatives, edited by Gary Orfield and Edward Miller, 33-50. Cambridge, MA: Civil Rights Project at Harvard University.
    • (1998) Chilling Admissions: The Affirmative Action Crisis and the Search for Alternatives , pp. 33-50
    • Karabel, J.1
  • 43
    • 34147114512 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Determinants of College Completion: School Quality or Student Ability. Journal of Human Resources 25(2): 299-355.
    • Determinants of College Completion: School Quality or Student Ability. Journal of Human Resources 25(2): 299-355.
  • 44
    • 2342515355 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • College Applications and the Effect of Affirmative Action
    • Long, Mark C. 2004a. College Applications and the Effect of Affirmative Action. Journal of Econometrics 121(1-2): 319-42.
    • (2004) Journal of Econometrics , vol.121 , Issue.1-2 , pp. 319-342
    • Long, M.C.1
  • 45
    • 11144315510 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Race and College Admission: An Alternative to Affirmative Action?
    • _. 2004b. Race and College Admission: An Alternative to Affirmative Action? Review of Economics and Statistics 86(4): 1020-33.
    • (2004) Review of Economics and Statistics , vol.86 , Issue.4 , pp. 1020-1033
    • Long, M.C.1
  • 46
    • 0005410093 scopus 로고
    • Affirmative Action in Higher Education
    • Loury, Linda Datcher, and David Garman. 1993. Affirmative Action in Higher Education. American Economic Review 83(2): 99-103.
    • (1993) American Economic Review , vol.83 , Issue.2 , pp. 99-103
    • Loury, L.D.1    Garman, D.2
  • 49
    • 34147167303 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Race and the University: Why Social Justice Leads to Academic Excellence
    • March 19
    • McCormick, Richard. 2000. Race and the University: Why Social Justice Leads to Academic Excellence. Seattle Times, March 19.
    • (2000) Seattle Times
    • McCormick, R.1
  • 50
    • 33745294856 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Access to the University of Texas at Austin and the Ten Percent Plan: A Three-Year Assessment
    • University of Texas at Austin, accessed January 30
    • Montejano, David. 2001. Access to the University of Texas at Austin and the Ten Percent Plan: A Three-Year Assessment. Research report, University of Texas at Austin. www.utexas.edu/student/admissions/research/montejanopaper.html [accessed January 30, 2007].
    • (2001) Research report
    • Montejano, D.1
  • 51
    • 0034100791 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Returns to Individual and College Characteristics: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth
    • Monks, James. 2000. The Returns to Individual and College Characteristics: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. Economics of Education Review 19(3): 279-89.
    • (2000) Economics of Education Review , vol.19 , Issue.3 , pp. 279-289
    • Monks, J.1
  • 52
    • 34147180755 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • News Tribune (Tacoma, WA). 2005. Amending I-200 Won't Close Achievement Gap. February 17. www.thenewstribune.com/opinion/editorials/story/ 4606468p-4280533c.html [accessed January 30, 2007].
    • News Tribune (Tacoma, WA). 2005. Amending I-200 Won't Close Achievement Gap. February 17. www.thenewstribune.com/opinion/editorials/story/ 4606468p-4280533c.html [accessed January 30, 2007].
  • 53
    • 34147147741 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Race-Based Scholarships to End
    • August 31
    • New York Times. 2001. Race-Based Scholarships to End. August 31.
    • (2001) New York Times
  • 54
    • 33745025191 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • College Selectivity and the Texas Top 10 Percent Law: How Constrained Are the Options?
    • Niu, Sunny, Marta Tienda, and Kalena Cortes. 2006. College Selectivity and the Texas Top 10 Percent Law: How Constrained Are the Options? Economics of Education Review 25(3): 259-72.
    • (2006) Economics of Education Review , vol.25 , Issue.3 , pp. 259-272
    • Niu, S.1    Tienda, M.2    Cortes, K.3
  • 55
    • 33745791144 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Introduction
    • edited by Gary Orfield and Michal Kurlaender, Cambridge, MA: Civil Rights Project at Harvard University
    • Orfield, Gary. 2001. Introduction. In Diversity Challenged: Evidence on the Impact of Affirmative Action, edited by Gary Orfield and Michal Kurlaender, 1-30. Cambridge, MA: Civil Rights Project at Harvard University.
    • (2001) Diversity Challenged: Evidence on the Impact of Affirmative Action , pp. 1-30
    • Orfield, G.1
  • 56
    • 34147152446 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Taking Stock, Resuming Course
    • Roach, Ronald. 2003. Taking Stock, Resuming Course. Black Issues in Higher Education 20(11): 16-19.
    • (2003) Black Issues in Higher Education , vol.20 , Issue.11 , pp. 16-19
    • Roach, R.1
  • 57
    • 34147183471 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Minority Enrollment Up at UW: Numbers, Though, Are Lower since I-200 Was Approved in 1998
    • Seattle, WA, November 1
    • Sanders, Al. 2000. Minority Enrollment Up at UW: Numbers, Though, Are Lower since I-200 Was Approved in 1998. The Skanner (Seattle, WA), November 1.
    • (2000) The Skanner
    • Sanders, A.1
  • 58
    • 0141739650 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • New Admissions System at U. of Michigan to Seek Diversity through Essays
    • September 5
    • Schmidt, Peter. 2003. New Admissions System at U. of Michigan to Seek Diversity through Essays. Chronicle of Higher Education, September 5.
    • (2003) Chronicle of Higher Education
    • Schmidt, P.1
  • 59
    • 34147177844 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Researching the Educational Benefits of Diversity
    • No. 2005-4, College Entrance Examination Board, accessed January 30
    • Shaw, Emily J. 2005. Researching the Educational Benefits of Diversity. Research Report No. 2005-4, College Entrance Examination Board. www.collegeboard.com/research/pdf/051092RDCBReport05-4_050420.pdf [accessed January 30, 2007]
    • (2005) Research Report
    • Shaw, E.J.1
  • 60
    • 34147187457 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction. n.d
    • State of Washington, Report P-105, accessed January 30
    • State of Washington, Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction. n.d. Report P-105. www.k12.wa.us/DataAdmin/default.aspx [accessed January 30, 2007].
    • (2007)
  • 61
    • 84937189914 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Beyond Affirmative Action: Algorithmic versus Holistic Approaches to College Admissions
    • Sullivan, Teresa A. 1999. Beyond Affirmative Action: Algorithmic versus Holistic Approaches to College Admissions. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 17: 319-34.
    • (1999) Research in Social Stratification and Mobility , vol.17 , pp. 319-334
    • Sullivan, T.A.1
  • 62
    • 34147093372 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Texas A&M University, Fall, accessed January 30, 2007
    • Texas A&M University. 2004. Applied/Admitted/Enrolled Report, Fall 2004. www.tamu.edu/oisp/reports/student/AAE_Fa04.pdf [accessed January 30, 2007].
    • (2004) Applied/Admitted/Enrolled Report
  • 63
    • 33745305173 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Flagships, Feeders, and the Texas Top 10 percent Law: A Test of the "Brain Drain" Hypothesis
    • Tienda, Marta, and Sunny Niu. 2006. Flagships, Feeders, and the Texas Top 10 percent Law: A Test of the "Brain Drain" Hypothesis. Journal of Higher Education 77(4): 712-39.
    • (2006) Journal of Higher Education , vol.77 , Issue.4 , pp. 712-739
    • Tienda, M.1    Niu, S.2
  • 64
    • 84887791441 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Racial Preferences: What We Now Know
    • February, accessed January 30
    • Thernstrom, Stephan, and Abigail Thernstrom. 1999. Racial Preferences: What We Now Know. Manhattan Institute for Policy Research, Commentary, February. www.manhattan-institute.org/html/_commentary-racial_prefs.htm [accessed January 30, 2007]
    • (1999) Manhattan Institute for Policy Research, Commentary
    • Thernstrom, S.1    Thernstrom, A.2
  • 67
    • 34147172996 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • FACTS about the University of California: Comprehensive Review
    • accessed January 30
    • _. 2001. FACTS about the University of California: Comprehensive Review. UC Office of the President, Office of Strategic Communications, www.ucop.edu/news/factsheets/2001/comprev.pdf [accessed January 30, 2007].
    • (2001) UC Office of the President, Office of Strategic Communications
  • 68
    • 34147122825 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • _. 2004a. University of California: Application, Admissions and Enrollment of California Resident Freshmen for Fall 1995 through 2003. www.ucop.edu/news/factsheets/flowfrc9503.pdf [accessed January 30, 2007].
    • _. 2004a. University of California: Application, Admissions and Enrollment of California Resident Freshmen for Fall 1995 through 2003. www.ucop.edu/news/factsheets/flowfrc9503.pdf [accessed January 30, 2007].
  • 70
    • 34147103597 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • University of Texas at Austin. 1995-2005. Statistical Handbook, 1995-96 to 2004-05. www.utexas.edu/academic/oir/ [accessed January 30, 2007].
    • University of Texas at Austin. 1995-2005. Statistical Handbook, 1995-96 to 2004-05. www.utexas.edu/academic/oir/ [accessed January 30, 2007].
  • 71
    • 34147092823 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • _. 2003. The University of Texas at Austin Proposes Inclusion of Race as a Factor in Admissions Process. News release, November 24. www.utexas.edu/opa/ news/03newsreleases/nr_200311/nr_admission031124.html [accessed January 30, 2007].
    • _. 2003. The University of Texas at Austin Proposes Inclusion of Race as a Factor in Admissions Process. News release, November 24. www.utexas.edu/opa/ news/03newsreleases/nr_200311/nr_admission031124.html [accessed January 30, 2007].
  • 72
    • 34147151389 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • University of Washington, accessed January 30, 2007
    • University of Washington. 2000. University of Washington Diversity Compact III Report. http://depts.washington.edu/oma/uowdciiir.php [accessed January 30, 2007].
    • (2000) University of Washington Diversity Compact III Report


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.