Securing Japan: The current discourse

Journal of Japanese Studies

Volumn 33, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 125-152

  Samuels, Richard J ^a  

^a MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 33947638427     PISSN: 00956848     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jjs.2007.0034     Document Type: Review

References (126)

1. I. I. Morris, Nationalism and the Right Wing in Japan: A Study of Post-war Trends (London: Oxford University Press, 1960).
2. See also Yomiuri shinbun, December 1, 2005, for a comparison of reform bureaucrats (kakushin) during Konoye Fumimaro's ascendance in the 1930s to the reformism (kaikaku) of Prime Minister Koizumi Jun'ichirō 70 years later.
3. J. Victor Koschmann, "Asianism's Ambivalent Legacy," in Peter J. Katzenstein and Takashi Shiraishi, eds., Network Power: Japan and Asia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997), p. 109.
4. Kitaoka Shin'ichi, Dokuritsu jison: Fukuzawa Yukichi no chōsen (Tokyo: Kōdansha, 2002).
5. Richard J. Samuels, Rich Nation, Strong Army: National Security and Japan's Technological Transformation (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994).
6. Koschmann, "Asianism's Ambivalent Legacy," and Sven Saaler, Politics, Memory and Public Opinion: The History Textbook Controversy and Japanese Society (Tokyo: Monographien aus dem Deutschen Institut für Japanstudien, 2005), explore these connections and transformations.
7. See also Peter Duus, "The New Asianism," in Arne Holzhausen, ed., Can Japan Globalize? Studies on Japan's Changing Political Economy and the Process of Globalization in Honour of Sung-Jo Park (Heidelberg: Physica-Verlag, 2001).
8. Shiraishi Takashi, "Tōajia Kyōdōtai no kōchiku wa kannō ka," Chūō kōron, January 2006, pp. 118-27, is an incisive analysis of these differences.
9. See also Bungei Shunjū, ed., Nihon no ronten: 2006 (Tokyo: Bungei Shunjū, 2005), p. 197, and Sankei shinbun, August 22, 2005.
10. Tessa Morris-Suzuki, "Free Speech - Silenced Voices: The Japanese Media and the NHK Affair," Asia Rights, Issue 4, 2005, http://rspas.anu.edu.au/asiarightsjournal/Morris_Suzuki.htm, accessed August 22, 2006.
11. Bungei Shunjū, ed., Nihon no ronten: 2006, devotes a large section to the contemporary debate on these issues.
12. Hosaka Masayasu, "'Ano sensō' o shinryaku de mo naku, seisen de mo naku, rekishi to shite kataritsugu toki ga kita," in ibid., pp. 214-17. Yomiuri shinbun, August 15, 2006.
13. Yasukuni's English-language website is at http://www.yasukuni.or.jp/ English/index.html, accessed August 22, 2006.
14. Ronza, February 2006, p. 31.
15. See Miura, Yasukuni jinja, p. 36,
16. and Bungei Shunjū, ed., Nihon no ronten: 2006, p. 239, for the list of all postwar visits by Japanese prime ministers.
17. Asahi Shinbun and Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, eds., Japan-Korea-China Three Country Opinion Survey (2005). For a book critical of Yasukuni Shrine,
18. see Takahashi Tetsuya, Yasukuni mondai (Tokyo: Chikuma Shinsho, 2005).
19. See Kazuhiko Togo, "A Moratorium on Yasukuni Visits," Far Eastern Economic Review, July/August 2006, for an insider's compelling analysis.
20. Bungei Shunjū, ed., Nihon no ronten: 2006, pp. 260-61.
21. Wall Street Journal, August 16, 2005.
22. Tōkyō shinbun, August 26, 2005.
23. Mainichi shinbun, September 7, 2005. Shimaguchi Takehiko, "Zainichi Beigun kichi o meguru shomondai," Bōeigaku kenkyū, Vol. 32 (February 2005), pp. 15-41.
24. Japan Times, October 24, 2005.
25. Interview, January 26, 2006.
26. The full text of the treaty is at http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/n-america/ us/q&a/ref/1.html, accessed August 22, 2006. Shimaguchi "Zainichi Beigun kichi o meguru shomondai," p. 16, argues vigorously that Article 6 is the source of continued extraterritorial privilege for U.S. forces. (Shimaguchi is the former director general of the Defense Facilities Administration.)
27. A list of suits is provided in the JDA white paper each year. See, for example, Japan Defense Agency, ed., Defense of Japan (Tokyo: Defense Agency of Japan, 2004), p. 374.
28. Such accidents are uncommon but have a long history. In 1964, two U.S. planes crashed near Tokyo injuring 43 people. After another crashed in Yokohama in 1977, the U.S. military refused to reveal the results of its investigation and left compensation payments up to the Japanese side.
29. Sheila A. Smith, "Shifting Terrain: The Domestic Politics of the U.S. Military Presence in Asia," East West Center Special Report (2006), p. 45.
30. Hisayoshi Ina, "Implementing the SACO and Revising the SOFA," in Akikaku Hashimoto, Mike Mochizuki, and Kurayoshi Takara, eds., The Okinawa Question and the U.S.-Japan Alliance (Washington: Sigur Center for Asian Studies, 2005), p. 42.
31. The 1950s was already a time of antibase furor. Sadō Akihiro, Sengo Nihon no bōei to seiji (Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kōbunkan, 2003), reviews the most politicized cases, beginning with Ishikawa in 1953 and Sunagawa in 1955.
32. Mike Mochizuki, "Japan's Search for Strategy," International Security, Vol. 8, No. 3 (1983/4), p. 164,
33. and Nagai Yonosuke, Gendai to senryaku (Tokyo: Bungei Shunjū, 1983), chapter three.
34. Ishiba Shigeru, Kokubō (Tokyo: Shinchōsha, 2005), p. 28.
35. Japan Defense Agency, Defense of Japan, p. 390,
36. and Tokuchi Hideshi, "Reisengo no Nihon no bōei seisaku ni tsuite," Kokusai anzen hoshō, Vol. 29, No. 3 (2001), pp. 72-73.
37. Honda Masaru et al., eds., Jieitai: Shirarezaru henyo (Tokyo: Asahi Shinbunsha, 2005), p. 156.
38. http://www.komei.or.jp/manifest/policy/manifest2005/08.html, accessed August 22, 2006.
39. For examples, see statements on Article 9 and the U.S.-led war in Iraq by Yokomichi Takahiro and Hironaka Wakako at http://www.yokomichi.com/ monthly_message/2000.11.01.htm and http://www.hirowaka.com/eng_dietact/ plenary_20030321_e.html, both accessed August 22, 2006.
40. For analysis of the changing salience of "autonomous defense" (jishu bōei),
41. see Sadō, Sengo Nihon no bōei to seiji, and Soeya, Nihon no "midoru pawaa" gaikō. The latter, in particular, relocates Nakasone Yasuhiro in the history of Japan's postwar security discourse.
42. Ian Nish, Japan's Struggle with Internationalism; Japan, China and the League of Nations, 1931-3 (London: Kegan Paul International, 1993), p. 15, reminds us that the term "autonomous diplomacy" was used by conservative politicians such as Matsuoka Yūsuke and Konoye Fumimaro, who opposed "Shidehara Diplomacy" in the 1920s and 1930s.
43. "Gaullists" were first identified by Mochizuki, "Japan's Search for Strategy," and by Nagai, Gendai to senryaku.
44. See also Sadō, Sengo Nihon no bōei to seiji.
45. Interview, Professor Fujiwara Kiichi, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, August 8, 2005.
46. Richard J. Samuels, Machiavelli's Children: Leaders and Their Legacies in Italy and Japan (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2003), chapter twelve, reviews Ishihara's political development. See also Cheol Hee Park, "Japanese Conservatives' Conception of Japan As a Normal Country: Comparing Ozawa, Nakasone, and Ishihara," unpublished manuscript for project on "Japan as a Normal Country" (2005).
47. Ishihara Shintarō, "Amerika wa katemai," Sankei shinbun, December 5, 2005.
48. Interview, Tokyo, July 15, 2005.
49. Morris, Nationalism and the Right Wing in Japan, p. 423.
50. Nishibe Susumu, Hagasareta kamen: Tōdai Komaba sōdōki (Tokyo: Bungei Shunjū, 1988).
51. Nishibe Susumu, "Rachi wa kokken shingai to no ninshiki wasureru na," Sankei shinbun, May 25, 2004.
52. Ibid.
53. Nishibe Susumu, "Kakubusoron ga jishu bōei e no michi o kirihiraku," Seiron, September 2003, pp. 86-98.
54. Takubo Tadae and Nishibe Susumu, "Shinbei hoshu vs. hanbei hoshu: Iraku kessen," Shokun!, January 2004, pp. 50-51.
55. "Ajia o butai ni 21-seiki no gemu ga hajimatte iru," Ronza, March 2005, p. 31.
56. See Nishibe Susumu, "Amerika senryaku ni haramareru kyōki," Seiron, April 2003, pp. 64-77, and Takubo and Nishibe, "Shinbei hoshu vs. hanbei hoshu," p. 52.
57. Nakanishi Terumasa, "Nihonkoku kakubusō e no ketsudan," Shokunl, August 2003, pp. 25-26,
58. and "Goals for Japan in Its Second Postwar Period," Media Resources: Views from Japan (Tokyo: Foreign Press Center of Japan, 2000).
59. Nakanishi Terumasa, "Kōen: Jimintō rittō 50-nen purojekuto Kihon Rinen Iinkai sōkai," March 30, 2004, http://www.jimin.jp/jimin/project/index6.html, accessed August 22, 2006.
60. Nakanishi Terumasa, "Saying 'Yes' to the U.S.-Japan Partnership," Japan Echo, Vol. 17, No. 1 (1990); Nakanishi rejects appeals from Korea and China for stronger relations with Japan as a "malignant virus" (akusei no uirusu). Nakanishi, "Nihonkoku kakubusō e no ketsudan," pp. 25-26, 27-28.
61. Quoted by Axel Berkofsky, "Feckless Opposition Can't Halt Troop Dispatch," Asia Times Online, February 5, 2004, and in Agence France-Presse, January 27, 2004.
62. Sanket shinbun, February 17, 2003.
63. Nakanishi, "Nihonkoku kakubusō e no ketsudan," pp. 35, 36-37. See also his "Nuclear Declaration for Japan" in Voice, February 2003.
64. Sven Saaler, "Pan-Asianism in Meiji and Taishō Japan: A Preliminary Framework," working paper 02/4, Philipp Franz von Siebold Stiftung Deutsches Institut für Japanstudien (2002), places the textbook debate in historical context. People's Daily, May 17, 2001, is one example of China's reaction to Japanese revisionism.
65. In the January 2003 issue of Shokun! he singles out Okazaki Hisahiko.
66. Kobayashi Yoshinori and Nishibe Susumu, Ahō koshinuke byōki no shinbei hoshu (Tokyo: Asuka Shinsha, 2003). Shūkan tōyō keizai, March 20, 2004.
67. "Okinawa no kichi no kikensei o Yamato (hondo) ni uttaetai," Okinawa taimusu, August 15, 2005.
68. Interview with Upper House LDP Diet representative, December 21, 2005, and with senior JDA official, Tokyo, January 11, 2006.
69. The Oriental Economist, July 2006, p. 7.
70. Mainichi shinbun, April 11, 2006. Nakanishi Terumasa also uses the term "normal nation" but chastises Ozawa and other conservatives for positing the "immature" idea that the United Nations might provide Japan security. Nakanishi, "Nihonkoku kakubusō e no ketsudan."
71. Ishiba Shigeru reports that he left the Shinshintō for the LDP over this issue. Ishihara, "Amerika wa katemai," pp. 85 and 203.
72. See Kitaoka Shin'ichi, Nihon no jiritsu: Taibei kyōchō to Ajia gaikō (Tokyo: Chūō Kōronsha, 2004), for more on the differences among conservatives vis-à-vis the role of the United Nations.
73. Watanabe Tsuneo in Yomiuri shinbun, November 25, 2005. He also reports that he personally tried to talk Koizumi out of visiting Yasukuni.
74. See Ronza, February 2006. Kōno interview, Tokyo, December 21, 2005.
75. Gaikō fōramu, January 2006.
76. Tōkyō shinbun, December 6, 2005.
77. Watanabe in Ronza, February 2006, pp. 26-39. For analysis of Nakasone's realism, see Park, "Japanese Conservatives' Conception of Japan," and Soeya, Nihon no "midoru pawaa" gaikō. Maehara Seiji, former head of the DPJ, is also a realist but was reluctant to tilt too vigorously in America's direction.
78. See Tōkyō shinbun, November 24, 2005,
79. and Yomiuri shinbun, December 10, 2005.
80. See Mochizuki, "Japan's Search for Strategy," for an analysis of this position during the cold war.
81. Ishiba, Kokubō, p. 151.
82. The term "new conservative mainstream" was suggested by Son Kissup. Interview, Seoul, November 30, 2005.
83. Nihon keizai shinbun, July 28, 2005. In February 2006, Chinese Foreign Minister Li Zhaoxing compared Prime Minister Koizumi Jun'ichirō's visits to Yasukuni Shrine to visits to the graves of Nazi leaders and called them "foolish" and "immoral." Chief Cabinet Secretary Abe Shinzō formally protested and declared that China's top leaders "lacked respect." Asahi shinbun, March 9, 2006.
84. Yomiuri shinbun, November 25, 2005.
85. Aso was also of the opinion that Koreans "voluntarily" adopted Japanese names during the colonial period. Tōkyō shinbun, February 2, 2006. In July 2006 it was learned that the Showa emperor stopped visiting Yasukuni because he did not wish to be associated with the war criminals enshrined there.
86. See Asahi shinbun, July 19, 2006.
87. Kitaoka, Nihon no jiritsu, lists the realists' criteria.
88. Sankei shinbun, August 3, 2005. If the realists' views are best reflected in the pages of the Yomiuri shinbun, the neoconservatives' position is found in the smaller, but still influential daily, the Sankei shinbun.
89. Interview, LDP Member, House of Councillors, Tokyo, December 21, 2005.
90. Ina, "Implementing the SACO and Revising the SOFA," p. 42.
91. Chikako Kawakatsu Ueki, "The China Threat" (Ph.D. diss., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2006), p. 387, reviews the "China threat" arguments in Japan.
92. Akira Iriye, Japan and the Wider World: From the Mid-Nineteenth Century to the Present (London: Longman, 1997), examines the LDP-PRC relationship in the 1950s.
93. See Tomohiko Taniguchi, "A Cold Peace: The Changing Security Equation in Northeast Asia," Orbis, Vol. 49, No. 3 (Summer 2005), pp. 445-57, for more on the pro-China (Keiseikai) faction within the LDP.
94. Soeya, Nihon no "midoru pawaa" gaikō, p. 22. One former senior diplomat suggests that "any notion that Japan had of itself as a great power was pitiably smashed [mijimeni uchikudaku]" in the 1990s.
95. Tanaka Hitoshi, "Tō Ajia Kyōdōtai o shiya ni Nichibei dōmei o katsuyō shi, baransu aru nōdōteki gaikō o," in Bungei Shunjū, ed., Nihon no ronten: 2006, p. 83.
96. Kōsaka Masataka, Kōsaka Masataka gaikō hyōronshū: Nihon no shinro to rekishi no kyōkun (Tokyo: Chūō Kōron, 1996), pp. 118-24. He said little of the Dutch colonies in South America and Southeast Asia.
97. Soeya, Nihon no "midoru pawaa" gaikō.
98. Kitaoka Shin'ichi, "Sengo Nihon no gaikō shisō," in Kitaoka Shin'ichi, ed., Sengo Nihon gaikō ronshū (Tokyo: Chūō Kōronsha, 1995), pp. 32-37, reviews this position.
99. See also Takemura Masayoshi, Chiisakutomo kirari to hikaru kuni Nippon (Tokyo: Kōbunsha, 1994),
100. and the discussion between Miyazaki Kiichi and Kōsaka Masataka in Utsukushii Nihon e no chōsen (Tokyo: Bungei Shunjū, 1984).
101. Kōsaka was a mercantile realist who never failed to argue for security policy in the national interest. See Kōsaka, Kōsaka Masataka gaikō hyōronshū.
102. Kōsaka, Kōsaka Masataka gaikō hyōronshū , coined the term "civilian great power" (bunminteki taikoku).
103. Funabashi Yoichi, "Tokyo's Depression Diplomacy," Foreign Affairs, November/December 1998, pp. 26-36, modifies it to "global civilian power."
104. Asahi shinbun, August 28, 2005.
105. This distinction was made by Keiō University Professor Tadokoro Masayuki, interview, July 6, 2005. See also Morimoto Satoshi, Morimoto Satoshi no me: Nihon no bōei to anzen hoshō (Tokyo: Gurafusha, 2005), p. 162.
106. Duus, "The New Asianism," is a useful review. See also Mike M. Mochizuki, "Japan: Between Alliance and Autonomy," in A. Tellis M. Wills, eds., Confronting Terrorism in the Pursuit of Power: Strategic Asia, 2004-2005 (Seattle: National Bureau of Asian Resaerch), pp. 103-39.
107. Tōkyō shinbun. July 7, 2005.
108. Asahi shinbim, May 10, 2006; Nihon keizai shinbun, May 1 and May 11, 2006.
109. Duus, "The New Asianism," p. 250; Koschmann, "Asianism's Ambivalent Legacy"; Ogoura Kazuo, "Tō Ajia de Ōshūryū no tōgō wa fukanō. Da ga keizai bunka no kyōdō hochō wa imi ga aru," in Bungei Shunjū, ed., Nihon no ronten: 2006.
110. Ogoura Kazuo, "Ajia no fukken no tame ni," Chuō kōron, July 1993, pp. 60-71.
111. Susumu Yamakage, "Japan's National Security and Asia-Pacific's Regional Institutions in the Post-Cold War Era," in Katzenstein and Shiraishi, eds., Network Power, pp. 300-301; Koschmann, "Asianism's Ambivalent Legacy," p. 109; Tanaka, "Tō Ajia Kyōdōtai."
112. Mainichi shinbun, August 17, 2005.
113. Asahi shinbun, April 7, 2006.
114. Terashima Jitsurō, "Koizumi gaikō no banshō: Seijiteki genjitsushugi no genkai" (Tokyo: Mitsui Bussan Senryaku Kenkyūjo, August 2005), and Zaikai, May 24, 2005.
115. Gendai, February 1, 2005, p. 70;
116. Nihon keizai shinbun, June 5, 2006.
117. Terashima Jitsurō, Rekishi o fukaku suikomi, mirai o omou: 1900 men no tabi, Amerika no seiki, Ajia no jison (Tokyo: Shinchōsha, 2002), p. 262, and Gendai, February 1, 2005, p. 67. In Rekishi o fukaku suikomi, chapter three, Terashima explores the lives of twentieth-century Asian intellectuals such as Okakura Tenshin, who first argued for "self-respect" in a Western-dominated world order.
118. Terashima Jitsurō, "Seiki o koeta Nihon no kodoku" (Tokyo: Mitsui Bussan Senryaku Kenkyūjo), June 2005.
119. "Ajia o butai ni 21-seiki no gemu ga hajimatte iru," Ronza, March 2005, p. 45.
120. Terashima Jitsurō, "Shinbei nyūō no sōgō senryaku o motomete," Chūō kōron, March 1996, pp. 20-38.
121. Shiraishi Takashi, Teikoku to sono genkai (Tokyo: NTT, 2004), pp. 13, 132, 162-65, 182. Such cultural elements include Japanese manga, Korean television dramas, and Hong Kong films.
122. Ibid., pp. 133, 218-19, 186-88.
123. Soeya, Nihon no "midoru pawaa" gaikō, p. 223.
124. Asahi shinbun, December 8, 2003.
125. Soeya, Nihon no "midoru pawaa" gaikō, p. 217.
126. Testimony by Tanaka Akihiko to Lower House Budget Committee. Yosan Iinkai, ed., "Yosan Iinkai kōchōkai giroku: Dai ichi go," February 23, 2005, p.19.