The revolt of the post-soviet generation: Youth movements in Serbia, Georgia, and Ukraine

Comparative Politics

Volumn 39, Issue 2, 2007, Pages

  Nikolayenko, Olena ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 33947377964     PISSN: 00104159     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (96)

1. Revolution is here loosely applied to refer to cases in which a popular movement attempts to transform fundamentally a state or political regime in an irregular fashion. Jeff Goodwin, "Revolutions and Revolutionary Movements," in Thomas Janoski, Robert R. Alford, Alexander M. Hicks, and Mildred A. Schwarte, eds., The Handbook of Political Sociology: States, Civil Societies, and Globalization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), pp. 404-22.
2. For a comparison of events in Serbia, Georgia, and Ukraine, see Michael McFaul, "Transitions from Postcommunism," Journal of Democracy, 16 (July 2005), 5-19.
3. Marvin Rintala, "Generations: Political Generations," in David Sills, ed., International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (New York: Macmillan and Free Press, 1968), p. 93.
4. Doug McAdam and Dieter Rucht, "The Cross National Diffusion of Movement Ideas," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 528(1993), 36-59.
5. Marco G. Giugni, "Explaining Cross-National Similarities among Social Movements," in Jackie Smith and Hank Johnston, eds., Globalization and Resistance: Transnational Dimensions of Social Movements (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002).
6. David Strang and Sarah A. Soule, "Diffusion in Organizations and Social Movements: From Hybrid Corn to Poison Pills," Annual Review of Sociology, 24 (1997), 265-90.
7. Doug McAdam, "'Initiator' and 'Spin-Off Movements: Diffusion Processes in Protest Cycles," in Mark Traugott, ed., Repertoires and Cycles of Collective Action (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995).
8. See, for example, Susan Eckstein, ed., Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001);
9. Jeffrey Wasserstrom, Student Protests in Twentieth-Century China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991).
10. Larry Diamond, "Thinking about the Hybrid Regimes," Journal of Democracy, 13 (April 2002), 21-35.
11. Ibid., p. 24.
12. Kent Jennings, "Residues of a Movement: The Aging of the American Protest Generation," American Political Science Review, 81 (June 1987), 368.
13. Nadia Diuk, "The Next Generation," Journal of Democracy, 15 (July 2004), 59-66.
14. See, for example, C. J. Chivers, "Youth Movement Underlies the Opposition in Ukraine," New York Times, Nov. 28, 2004;
15. Giorgi Lomsadze, "Amid Controversy, Georgian Student Protest Movement Grows," EurasiaNet, June 10, 2003, http://www.eurasianet. org/departments/rights/articles/eav061003.shtml;
16. Gabriel Partos, "Analysis: Otpor's Challenge to Milosevic," BBC News Online, May 15, 2000, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/ 749469.stm.
17. Richard G. Braungart and Margaret M. Braungart, "Youth Movements in the 1980s: A Global Perspective," International Sociology, 5 (June 1990), 157.
18. Giugni, p. 14.
19. This analysis avoids the controversy surrounding the distinction between the so-called black Pora and yellow Pora, named after the color of their insignia. However, Pora, later known as black Pora, launched a public campaign "What is Kuchmizm?" in March 2004, whereas yellow Pora, formed on the basis of the Coalition "Freedom of Choice," first appeared publicly during the mayoral election in Mukachevo in April 2004. For a concise English-language summary of the differences, see Taras Kuzio, "Pora Takes Two Different Paths," Eurasia Daily Monitor, Feb. 5, 2005.
20. See online archives of Center for Political Studies and Public Opinion Research, http://www.cpijm.org.yu/previous/aug2000.htm; Open Society-Georgia Foundation Election Support Program, http://www.esp.ge/?m=survey&id=80; Democratic Initiatives, http://www.dif.org.ua.
21. Pora Statement of April 30, 2004, http://kuchmizm.info/weblog/archives/ 000041.html.
22. Revaz Bakhtadze, "TSU Management Engaged in Insider Trading," Civil Georgia, Nov. 21, 2002, http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id= 2758.
23. "Deepening Authoritarianism in Serbia: The Purge of the Universities," Human Rights Watch Report, 11 (January 1999).
24. Data have been collected from Center for Educational Policy Studies, Statistical Data for Background Purposes of OECD Review, Country: Bosnia-Herzegovina (Ljubljana: University of Ljubljana. 2000):
25. State Department for Statistics of Georgia, Education, Science and Culture in Georgia (Tbilisi: State Department for Statistics of Georgia, 2004), http://www.statistics.ge/index_eng.htm;
26. State Statistics Committee of Ukraine, Statistical Information Online (Kiev: State Statistics Committee of Ukraine, 2004), http:;/www.ukrstat.gov.ua.
27. Nella van Dyke, "Hotbeds of Activism: Locations of Student Protests." Social Problems, 45 (May 1998). 205-20.
28. Jaba Devdariani, "Running in Place," Transitions Online, July 25, 2001.
29. William A. Gamson, Bruce Fireman, and Steve Rytina, Encounters with Unjust Authority (Homewood: Dorsey, 1982);
30. Robert D. Benford and David A. Snow, "Framing Processes and Social Movements: An Overview and Assessment," Annual Review of Sociology, 26 (2000), 615.
31. For a sample of anecdotes and cartoons, see http://eggs.net.ua.
32. Marc Steinberg, "When Politics Goes Pop: On the Intersections of Popular and Political Culture and the Case of Serbian Student Protests," Social Movement Studies, 3 (April 2004), 19.
33. Veran Matic, "How Milosevic Was Finally Defeated," Global Upbeat, October 10, 2000.
34. Charles Tilly, "Contentious Repertoires in Great Britain, 1758-1834," in Traugott, ed., p. 26.
35. Images of the stickers can be found at http://kuchmizm.info/ weblog/archive/000033.html.
36. David S. Meyer, "Protest and Political Opportunities," Annual Review of Sociology, 30 (2004), 125-45.
37. Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action and Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
38. Maryjane Osa and Cristina Corduneanu-Huci, "Running Uphill: Political Opportunity in Nondemocracies," Comparative Sociology, 2 (2003), 605-29;
39. Kurt Schock, "People Power and Political Opportunities: Social Movement Mobilization and Outcomes in the Philippines and Burma," Social Problems, 46 (August 1999), 355-75.
40. Thomas Olesen, "The Uses and Misuses of Globalization in the Study of Social Movements," Social Movement Studies, 4 (May 2005). In discussing the impact of international context, this article focuses on the positive role of western actors. Analysis of Russia's role in constraining youth mobilization in postcommunist states requires further investigation.
41. David Strang and John W. Meyer, "Institutional Conditions for Diffusion," Theory and Society, 22 (August 1993), 488.
42. Sarah A. Soule and Yvonne Zylan, "Runaway Train? The Diffusion of State-Level Reform to A(F)DC Eligibility Requirements, 1950-1967," American Journal of Sociology, 103 (November 1997), 733-62.
43. James S. Coleman, Elihu Katz, and Herbert Menzel, Medical Innovation: A Diffusion Study (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1966).
44. William A. Gamson and Gadi Wolfsfeld, "Movements and Media as Interacting Systems." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 528 (1993), 114-25.
45. Jeffrey M. Ayres, "From the Streets to the Internet: The Cyber-Diffusion of Contention," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 566 ( 1999), 132-43.
46. McAdam and Rucht, p. 60.
47. Vicente Rafael, "The Cell Phone and the Crowd: Messianic Politics in Contemporary Philippines." Public Culture, 15 (2003), 399-425.
48. Karl Mannheim, "The Problem of Generations," in Paul Kleckemeti, ed., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge by Karl Mannheim (London: Routledge and Kegan, 1952), p. 219.
49. Richard Rose and Ellen Carnaghan, "Generational Effects on Attitudes to the Communist Regime: A Comparative Analysis," Post-Soviet Affairs, 11 (January-March 1995), 28-56.
50. Judith Torney-Purta, Rainer Lehmann, Hans Oswald, and Wolfram Schultz, Citizenship and Education in Twenty-Eight Countries: Civic Knowledge and Engagement at Age Fourteen (Amsterdam: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement, 2001).
51. Claus Offe and Adler Pierre, "Capitalism by Democratic Design? Theory Facing the Triple Transition in East Central Europe," Social Research, 58 (Winter 1991), 865-81;
52. Taras Kuzio, "Transition in Post-Communist States: Triple or Quadruple?" Politics, 21 (September 2001), 168-77.
53. Richard Rose, William Mishler, and Christian Haerpfer, Democracy and Its Alternatives: Understanding Post-Communist Societies (Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press, 1998).
54. David Mason and James R. Klugel, eds., Marketing Democracy: Changing Opinion about Inequality and Politics in East Central Europe (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000).
55. See, for example, Taras Kuzio and Paul J. D'Anieri, eds., Dilemmas of State-led Nation-Building in Ukraine (Westport: Praeger, 2002);
56. Jonathan Wheatley, Georgia from National Awakening to Rose Revolution: Delayed Transition in the Former Soviet Union (Burlington: Ashgate, 2005).
57. Aleksa Djilas, "Tito's Last Secret: How Did He Keep the Yugoslavs Together," Foreign Affairs, 74 (July-August 1995), 116-22.
58. John Bacher, "Robert Helvey's Expert Political Defiance," Peace Magazine, 19 (April-June 2003), 10-13.
59. Amnesty International, Ill-Treatment of Srdja Popovic and Other Otpor Activists in Police Custody (January 4, 1999).
60. Veran Matic, "Serbian Government Crackdown on Independent Media," Global Upbeat, Oct. 4-16, 1998.
61. Human Rights Watch, Serbian State-Run University Censors Internet (December 21, 1998).
62. John Lancaster, "US Funds Help Milosevic's Foes in Election Fight," Washington Post, Sept. 19, 2000.
63. USAID, FY 2001 Budget Justification, Dec.12, 2001, http://www.usaid.gov/pubs/bj2001/ee/yu/serbia_index.html.
64. Irakly Areshidze, "Georgia's Mounting Opposition," EurasiaNet, Jan. 21, 2003, http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/rights/ articles/eav012103.shtml.
65. Keith Darden, "Blackmail as a Tool of State Domination: Ukraine under Kuchma," East European Constitutional Review, 10 (Spring-Summer 2001).
66. Central Election Commission of Georgia, Results by June 24, 2002, http://www.archive.cec.gov.ge/Cfdocs/sabolooshedegebi/gasulebiENG.cfm?contact=0.
67. Keith Whitmore, Report on Local Elections in Georgia (June 2, 2002), Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of Europe/Council of Europe, July 10, 2002.
68. Revaz Bakhtadze, "Two Winners of the Locals - Similar, and Yet So Different," Civil Georgia, June 8, 2002, http://www.civil.ge/eng/ article.php?id=2050.
69. The Jamestown Foundation, "New Ukrainian Parliament Elected," Monitor, 8 (April 3, 2002).
70. Vladyslav Kaskiv et al., A Case Study of the Civic Campaign Pora and the Orange Revolution in Ukraine (Kiev: April 2005), p. 14.
71. The World Bank, Ukraine: Building Foundations for Sustainable Growth, Country Economic Memorandum (December 27, 2004).
72. "Berkut vziav shturmom Poru" [Berkut Took Pora by Storm], Ukrainska Pravda, Oct. 14, 2004, http://main.pravda.com.ua/news/2004/10/ 15/12706.htm.
73. "Pora and Students'ka Khvylia skladaiut' Chornyi Spysok" [Pora and Student Wave Compile the Black List], Narodnyj Ohliadach, Oct. 14, 2004, http://observer.sd.org.ua/prn_news.php?id=5096.
74. Leonard R. Sussman and Karin Deutsch Karlekar, eds., The Annual Survey of Press Freedom 2002 (New York: Freedom House, 2002);
75. Karin Deutsch Karlekar, ed., Freedom of the Press 2004: A Global Survey of Media Independence (New York: Freedom House, 2004).
76. Human Rights Watch, Negotiating the News: Informal State Censorship (March 2003).
77. Iryna Solonenko, "Ukraine without Kuchma," Central Europe Review, 3 (February 12, 2001), http://www.ce-review.org/01/6/ukrainenews6. html.
78. Freimut Duve, "Current Media Situation in Georgia," Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Report, Feb. 1, 2001.
79. Adrian Karatnycky, Alexander Motyl, and Amanda Schnetzer, eds., Nations in Transit. 2003: Democratization in East Central Europe and Eurasia (New York: Freedom House, 2003).
80. "Vybory zagnaly l'vivian v Internet" [The Elections Pushed Lviv Residents Online]. Novyny.net. Dec.17, 2004, http://net.lvivport.com/ rubrics/?article=109.
81. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, "Shevardnadze's Resignation Resolves the Constitutional Deadlock," Caucus Report, 6 (November 24, 2004).
82. U.S. State Department, Briefing by Secretary of State Colin L. Powell, Nov. 24, 2004.
83. The International Election Observation Mission, Statement of Preliminary Findings and Conclusions, Nov. 22, 2004.
84. Valentinas Mite, "Ukraine: Youthful Protesters Find That Times Are Changing," Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, Dec. 1, 2004.
85. "Fresh Air from WHYY: Interview with Srdja Popovic," National Public Radio, Mar. 20, 2002.
86. Julie A. Corwin, "East: Regime Change on the Cheap," Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, Apr. 19, 2005.
87. "Ukrainian Trap for Old Europe," Russian News and Information Agency Novosti, Nov. 30, 2004, http://en.rian.ru/analysis/ 20041130/39774524.html.
88. Jeremy Bransten, "Ukraine: Part Homegrown Uprising, Part Imported Production?," Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, Dec. 20, 2004.
89. Dusan Stojanovic, "Serbs Offer Nonviolent Revolution Advice," Newsday.com, Nov. 1, 2004, http://news.suc.org/bydate/2004/November_01/ 12.html.
90. Natalka Zubar, "In the Beginning Was the Word: Part 1 (2000-2001)," Maidan, http://eng.maidanua.org/node/459.
91. Sebastien Usher, "Ukraine State TV in Revolt," BBC Monitoring, Nov. 26, 2004.
92. Tetiana Vorozhko, "Vchit' anglijs'ku movu, tovarischi-polituku" [Learn the English Language, Comrades Politicians], Ukrainska Pravda, Jan. 6, 2005.
93. Albert Einstein Institute, Report on Activities, 2000-2004, http://www.aeinstein.org/organizations/org/2000-04rpt.pdf.
94. Oleg Shatberashvili, State of Telecommunications Sector in Georgia (Tbilisi: Telework Solutions for Promotion of EU Cooperation in Business and Research with the Commonwealth of Independent States), http://www.bcc-tbilisi. com.ge/telesol/telesol/eng/shatber/telsec.htm.
95. "Vseukrains'ka mobilizatsia" [All-Ukrainian Mobilization], Kontrakty, Nov. 15, 2004, http://www.kontrakty.com.ua/show/ukr/article/9/ 4620044305.html.
96. However, the creative process involved in adopting movement ideas has resulted in some cross-national differences. In particular, civic activists sought to adjust collective action frames to the national context. For example, Pora's choice of the rising sun as a political symbol was conditioned, in part, by concern that ordinary citizens might become alienated by the image of the clenched fist associated with violence. Analysis of movement differences represents an area for future research.