Gypsum: A review of its role in the deterioration of building materials

Environmental Geology

Volumn 52, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 207-220

  Charola, A Elena ^a   Pühringer, Josef ^b   Steiger, Michael ^c  

^a WMF P   (Portugal)

^b University of Hamburg ^*  (Sweden)

^c UNIVERSITY OF HAMBURG   (Germany)

Author keywords

Crystallization kinetics; Deterioration action; Gypsum; Phases; Solubility

Indexed keywords

CRYSTALLIZATION KINETICS; DEHYDRATION; DETERIORATION; PHASE EQUILIBRIA; SOLUBILITY;

CONSERVATION METHODS; DETERIORATION ACTION; HEMIHYDRATES;

GYPSUM;

ANHYDRITE; BASSANITE; CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL; CRYSTALLIZATION; DEHYDRATION; GEOLOGICAL TIME; GYPSUM; MONUMENT; PHASE EQUILIBRIUM; REACTION KINETICS; SOLUBILITY; THERMODYNAMICS;

EID: 33847729545     PISSN: 09430105     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00254-006-0566-9     Document Type: Review

References (94)

1. Abrate-Zohar MA, Zezza U, Veniale F, Setti M (1985) Decay stage and causes of the terra-cotta ornaments (Cloister of the Carthusian Monastery, Pavia. Italy. In: 5th International congress on deterioration and conservation of stone. Presses Polytechniques Romandes, Lausanne, pp 443-451
2. Archer DG (1992) Thermodynamic properties of NaCl + H2O system. II. Thermodynamic properties of NaCl (aq), NaCl 2H2O (cr), and phase equilibria. J Phys Chem Ref Data 21:793-821
3. Arnold A, Kueng A (1985) Crystallization and habits of salt efflorescences on walls. I. Methods of investigation and habits. In: 5th International congress on deterioration and conservation of stone. Presses Polytechniques Romandes, Lausanne, pp 255-277
4. Ausset P, Lefèvre RA, Del Monte M (2000) Early mechanisms of development of sulphated black crusts on carbonate stone. In: Fassina V (ed) 9th Intl. Congress on Deterioration and Conservation of Stone (Venice), vol 1. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 329-337
5. Baboian R (1986) Materials degradation caused by acid rain. ACS Symposium Series 318, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC 1986
6. Badan B, Bacelle G, Marchesini L (1976) Surface reactivity of marble and stone: Quarry and Altered Samples. In: Rossi-Manaresi R (ed) The conservation of stone I. Centro per la Conservazione delle Sculture all'aperto, Bologna, pp 89-101
7. Bayer K (2006) Gypsum-An overlooked corrosive factor for some types of silicate sandstones in Bohemia. In: Proceedings of the SALTeXPERT Workshop ARIADNE 13, Prague, ARCCHIP and GCI, 2002 (in press)
8. Begohna A, Teles M (2000) Study of stone deterioration in the Palácio do Freixo in Oporto. In: Fassina V (ed.) 9th Intl. Congress on Deterioration and Conservation of Stone (Venice), Vol.2. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 593-601
9. Bläuer C (1985) Weathering of Bernese sandstone. In: 5th Intl. Congress on Deterioration and Conservation of Stone. Presses Polytechniques Romandes, Lausanne, pp 381-409
10. Block J, Waters OB (1968) The CaSO4-Na2SO4-NaCl-H2O system at 25° to 100°. J Chem Eng Data 13:336-344
11. Bock E (1961) On the solubility of anhydrous calcium sulphate and of gypsum in concentrated solutions of sodium chloride at 25°C, 30°C, 40°C and 50°C. Can J Chem 39:1746-1751
12. Bortolaso G, Lazzarini L, Mengazzo Vitturi L, Rampazzo G (1988) The deterioration of "Rosso Ammonitico Veronese" nodular limestone: Comparison between a quarry and a Venetian monument. In: 6th Intl. Congress on Deterioration and Conservation of Stone. Nicholas Copernicus University Press Department, Torun, pp 97-109
13. Building Effects review group report (1989) The effects of acid deposition on buildings and building materials. Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London
14. Calaforra Chordi JM (1998) Caracterización geomorfológica del karst en yeso (Geomorphological characterization of gypsum karsts). In: Karstología de yesos (Karst formation in gypsum deposits). Universidad de Almería, Servicio de Publicaciones. Instituto de Estudios Almerienses, Almería, 69-195
15. Charola AE (2000) Salts in the deterioration of porous materials: an overview. J Am Inst Conserv 39:332-343
16. Charola AE (2001) Acidic deposition on stone: a literature survey. US/ICOMOS Sci J 3:19-58
17. Charola AE (2003) Salt deterioration: open questions. In: Mauersalze und Architekturoberflächen (Salts in walls and architectural surfaces). Leitner H, Laue S and Siedel H (eds). Hochschule für Bildende Künste, Dresden: 10-24
18. Charola AE, Lewin SZ (1979) Efflorescences on building stones-SEM in the characterization and elucidation of the mechanisms of formation. Scanning Electron Microscopy/ 1979/I:378-386
19. Charola AE, Koestler RJ (1985/86) SEM Study of the deterioration of monumental stones in Vienna. In: Vendl A, Pichler B, Weber J, Banik G (eds) Wiener Berichte über Naturwissenschaft in der Kunst. Vol.2/3. Orac, Vienna, pp 176-186
20. Charola AE, Weber J (1992) The hydration-dehydration mechanism of sodium sulphate. In: Delgado Rodrigues J, Enriques F, Telmo Jeremias F (eds) 7th International congress on deterioration and conservation of stone. Laboratório Nacional de Engenharia Civil, Lisbon, pp 581-590
21. Charola AE, Centeno SA (2002) Analysis of gypsum-containing lime mortars: Possible errors due to the use of different drying conditions. J Am Inst Conserv 41:269-278
22. Charola AE, Ware R (2002) Acid deposition and the deterioration of stone: a brief review of a broad topic. In: Siegesmund S, Weiss R and Vollbrecht A (eds) Natural stone, weathering phenomena, conservation strategies and case studies. Geol Soc Lond Spec Publ 205:393-406
23. Charola AE, Pühringer J (2005) Salts in the deterioration of porous materials: a call for the right questions. Restor Build Monum 11:433-42
24. -1 aqueous sulfuric acid from 273.15 to 328.15 K. J Chem Eng Data 90:1875-1894
25. D'Ans (1968) Der Übergangspunkt Gips → Anhydrit (The transition point gypsum → anhydrite). Kali Steinsalz 5:109-111
26. D'Ans J, Bredtschneider D, Eick H, Freund H-E (1955) Untersuchungen über die Calciumsulphate (Investigations on the sulfates of calcium). Kali Steinsalz 1:17-38
27. Davis WA (1907) The nature of the changes involved in the production and setting of plaster of paris. J Soc Chem Ind 26:727-738
28. Deer WA, Howie RA, Zussman J (1975) Rock-Forming Minerals Vol. 5 Non-Silicates. Longman, London (1962) 7th impression: 202-218
29. Dudnikova KT, Samoilov OYa (1963) Solubility of gypsum in aqueous solutions of salting-out agents. Sov Radiochem 5:644-646
30. Fassina V, Lazzarini, Biscontin G, Calogero S (1979) Influenza del materiale particellare atmosférico sui processi di degradazione della pietra a Venezia (Influence of atmospheric particulates on the deterioration process of the stones in Venice). In: 3rd International congress on deterioration and conservation of stone (Venice). Università degli Studi di Padova, Padua, pp 43-53
31. Franchi R, Manganelli Del Fà C (1979) Ricerche sulla degradazione delle "Pietre": IX. Il Cristo del Sansovino. In: 3rd Intl. Congress on Deterioration and Conservation of Stone (Venice). Università delgi Studi di Padova, Padua, pp 481-490
32. Franke L, Grabau J (1998) Influence of salt content on the drying behavior of brick. In: Baer NS, Fitz S, Livingston RA (eds) Conservation of historic brick structures. Donhead, Shaftesbury, pp 59-68
33. 4-based salts. Monatsh Chem 134:693-719
34. Goudie A, Viles H (1997) Salt weathering hazards. Wiley, Chichester
35. Grassegger G (2002) Restoration of the sarcophagus of Duke Melchior von Hatzfeld-the accompanying scientific and technical investigations. Otto Graf J 13:141-154
36. Grimm WD, Schwarz U (1985) Naturwerksteine und ihre Verwitterung an Münchner Bauten und Dankmälern (Natural stone and their deterioration in buildings and monuments in Munich). In: Natursteinkonservierung. Arbeitsheft 31. Bayerisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege, Munich, pp 28-118
37. Haber J, Haber H, Kozlowski R, Magiera J, Pluska I (1988) Air pollution and decay of architectural monuments in the city of Cracow. In: Rosvall J, Aleby S (eds) Air pollution and conservation. Safeguarding our cultural heritage. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 499-547
38. Hardie LA (1967) The gypsum-anhydrite equilibrium at one atmosphere pressure. Am Mineral 52:171-200
39. Heusinger von Waldegg E (1906) Der Gips (Gypsum). In: Moye A (ed) 2nd edn. Theod. Thomas Verlag, Leipzig
40. Hill AE (1934) Ternary systems. XIX. Calcium sulfate, potassium sulfate and water. J Am Chem Soc 56:1071-1078
41. Hill AE (1937) The transition temperature of gypsum to anhydrite. J Am Chem Soc 59:2242-2244
42. Hill AE, Yanick NS (1935) Ternary system. XX. Calcium sulfate, ammonium sulfate and water. J Am Chem Soc 57:645-651
43. Hill AE, Wills JH (1938) Ternary systems. XXIV. Calcium sulfate, sodium sulfate and water. J Am Chem Soc 60:1647-1655
44. Hulett GA (1905) The solubility of gypsum as affected by size of particles and by different crystallographic surfaces. J Am Chem Soc 27:49-56
45. Hulett GA, Allen LE (1902) The solubility of gypsum. J Am Chem Soc 24:667-679
46. Kelley KK, Southard JC, Anderson CT (1941) Thermodynamic properties of gypsum and its dehydration products. US Bur Mines Tech Pap 625
47. 2O. Z Phys Chem NF 104:41-48
48. Lazzarini L, Fassina V (1979) Studio scientifico sullo stato di conservazione delle pietre e dei marmi della Porta della Carta di Venezia (Scientific study on state of conservation of the stones and marbles of the Porta della Carta in Venice). In: 3rd Intl. Congress on Deterioration and Conservation of Stone (Venice). Università delgi Studi di Padova, Padua, pp 647-660
49. Lazzarini L, Laurenzi Tabasso M (1986) Il restauro della pietra (The restoration of stone) Cedam, Padua: 22
50. Le Chatelier H (1887) Recherches expérimentales sur la constitution des mortier hydrauliques (Experimental research on the composition of hydraulic mortars). Dunod, Paris
51. Leitner H (2005) The treatment of wall paintings affected by salts: an interdisciplinary task as seen from a conservator's perspective. Restor Build Mon 11:365-380
52. 2O at 25° and 35°. J Appl Chem 6:482-487
53. Marshall WL, Slusher R (1966) Thermodynamics of calcium sulfate dihydrate in aqueous sodium chloride solutions, 0-110°. J Phys Chem 70:4015-4027
54. Neumann HH, Steiger M, Wassmann A, Dannecker W (1993) Aufbau und Ausbildung schwarzer Gipskrusten und damit zusammenhängender Gefügeschäden von Naturwerksteinen am Beispiel des Leineschlosses, Hannover (Formation and development of black gypsum crusts and related deterioration of the structure of natural stones as exemplified by the Leineschloss in Hanover). In: Snethlage R (ed) Steinzerfall-Steinkonservierung, Vol. 3-1991, Verlag Ernst & Sohn, Berlin, pp 51-167
55. Neumann HH, Lork A, Steiger M, Juling H (1997) Decay patterns of weathered quartz sandstones: evidence of gypsum induced structural changes. In: Sveinsdottir EL (ed) Proceedings of the 6th Euroseminar on microscopy applied to building materials, Icelandic Building Research Institute, Reykjavic, pp 238-249
56. Nunberg S, Charola AE (2001) Salts in Ceramic Bodies II: deterioration due to minimal changes in relative humidity. Int J Restor Build Mon 7:131-146
57. Ottemann J (1952) Baustoff Anhydrit. (Construction material anhydrite) Verlag Technik, Berlin
58. Partridge EP, White AH (1929) The solubility of calcium sulfate from 0 to 200°. J Am Chem Soc 51:360-370
59. 2O. Am J Sci 35A:247-272
60. Posnjak E (1940) Deposition of calcium sulfate from sea water. Am J Sci 238:559-568
61. Power WH, Fabuss BM, Satterfield CN (1964) Transient solubilities in the calcium sulfate-water system. J Chem Eng Data 9:437-442
62. Power WH, Fabuss BM, Satterfield CN (1966) Transient solute concentrations and phase changes of calcium sulfate in aqueous sodium chloride. J Chem Eng Data 11:149-154
63. Pühringer J (1983a) Salt disintegration: salt migration and degration by salt-a hypothesis. D15:1983 Swedish Council for Building Research, Stockholm
64. Pühringer J (1983b) Salzwanderungen und Verwitterung durch Salze (Salt migration and weathering through salts). In: Wittmann FH (ed) Materials Science and Restoration. Edition Lack + Chemie, Filderstadt, pp 361-366
65. 2O) to 325 K. Thermochim Acta 139:67-81
66. Rossi-Manaresi R, Alessandrini G, Fuzzi S, Peruzzi R (1979) Assessment of the Effectiveness of Some Preservatives for Marble and Limestones. In: 3rd Intl. Congress on Deterioration and Conservation of Stone (Venice). Università degli Studi di Padova, Padua, pp 357-376
67. Rosval J, Aleby S (1986) Air pollution and conservation. Safeguarding our architectural heritage. Elsevier, Amsterdam
68. Shternina EB (1949) Solubility of gypsum in salt solutions. Izvest Sektora Fiz-Khim Anal, Inst Obshchei Neorg Khim, Akad Nauk S.S.S.R. 17:351-369 (in Russian)
69. Shternina EB (1957) Maximums on the solubility isotherms for calcium sulfate and calcium carbonate. Zh Neorg Khim 2:933-937 (in Russian)
70. Seidell A, Smith JG (1904) The solubility of calcium sulphate in solutions of nitrates. J Phys Chem 8:493-499
71. 2O), im Gipskarstgebiet von Foum Tatahouine, Südtunesien. (Occurrence and formation of bassanite in the gypsum karst region of Foum Tatahouine, South Tunesia). Chem Erde 44:67-77
72. Snethlage R (1984) Steinkonservierung 1979-1983 (Stone conservation 1979-1983) Arbeitsheft 22, Bayerisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege. Munich: 13-83
73. Snethlage R, Wendler E (1997) Moisture cycles and sandstone degradation. In: Baer NS, Snethlage R (eds) Saving our architectural heritage: the conservation of historic stone structures. Wiley, Chichester, pp 7-24
74. Snethlage R, Wendler E, Klemm DD (1996) Tenside im Gesteinschutz- Bisherige Resultate mit einem neuen Konzept zur Erhaltung von Denkmälern aus Naturstein (Tensides in the protection of stone-Results from a new concept for the conservation of monuments in natural stone). In: Snethlage R (ed) Denkmalpflege und Naturwissenschaft. Natursteinkonservierung I. Ernst & Sohn, Berlin, pp 127-146
75. Steiger M (2003) Crusts and salts. In: Brimblecombe P (ed) The effects of air pollution on the built environment. Air pollution reviews, vol 2. Imperial College Press, London, pp 133-181
76. Steiger M (2005) Crystal growth in porous materials: I. The crystallization pressure of large crystals. J Cryst Growth 282:455-469
77. Tucci A, Koestler RJ, Charola AE, Rossi-Manaresi R (1985) The influence of acid rain and UV radiation on the ageing of acrylic and silicone resins. In: 5th International congress on deterioration and conservation of stone. Presses Polytechniques Romandes, Lausanne, pp 891-898
78. van't Hoff JH (1909), Zur Bildung der ozeanischen Salzablagerungen (On the formation of the oceanic salt deposits). Zweites Heft. Vieweg und Sohn, Braunschweig
79. van't Hoff JH, Armstrong EF, Hinrichsen W, Weigert F, Just G (1903) Gips und Anhydrit (Gypsum and anhydrite). Z Phys Chem 45:257-306
80. von Konow T (2001) Mechanisms of brick deterioration due to salts: new results on salt behaviour from in-situ studies at the Suomenlinna Fortress in Finland. Int J Restor Build Monum 7:675-688
81. Weber J (1993) Salt-induced deterioration of Romanesque wall paintings in the church of St. Georgen, Styria, Austria. In: Biscontin G, Graziano L (eds) Conservation of architectural surfaces: stones and wall coverings. Il Cardo, Venice, pp 97-103
82. Weber J, Leitner H, Gaggl W and Szambelan R (1996) Crystallization of sulphate salts induced by selective salt extraction by poultices: results from a case study. In: Preprints of the european research workshop on origin, mechanisms and effects of salts on degradation of monuments in marine and continental environments, Bari, pp 169-170
83. Weiser HB, Millligan WO, Ekholm WC (1936) The mechanism of the dehydration of calcium sulfate hemihydrate. J Amer Chem Soc 58:1261-1265
84. Winkler EM (1975) Stone: properties, durability in man's environment, 2nd edn. Springer, Vienna and New York
85. 2O to the critical temperature of water. Association equilibria. J Phys Chem 73:81-90
86. Yeatts LB, Marshall WL (1972) Solubility of calcium sulfate dihydrate and association equilibria in several aqueous mixed electrolyte salt systems at 25 °C. J Chem Eng Data 17:163-168
87. Young ME, Jones MS, MacDonald J, Urquhart DCM, Nicholson K, McHardy WJ (1996) Investigations on the soiling and cleaning of some Scottish granites. Degradation and conservation of granitic rocks in monuments. Research report No.5. Environmental Protection and Conservation of the European Cultural Heritage. European Commission, Brussels, pp 429-434
88. 4 solutions. Russ J Inorg Chem 13:1318-1319
89. 2O at 35°, 50°, and 70°C and one atmosphere pressure. J Petrol 6:124-164
90. Zehnder K (1982) Verwitterung von Molassensandsteinen an Bauwerken und in Naturaufschlüssen (Weathering of Molasse sandstones in buildings and in natural occurrences) Beiträge zur Geologie der Schweiz, Geotechnische Serie 61:86
91. Zehnder, K (1993) New aspects of decay caused by crystallization of gypsum. In: Thiel M-J (ed) Conservation of stone and other materials. Vol 1 E & FN Spon, London, pp 107-114
92. Zehnder, K (1996) Gyspsum efflorescences in the zone of rising damp. Monitoring of slow decay processes caused by crystallizing salts on wall paintings. In: Riederer J (ed) Proceedings 8th International congress on deterioration and conservation of stone. Möller Druck, Berlin, pp 1669-1678
93. Zehnder K, Arnold A (1989) Crystal growth in salt efflorescence. J Cryst Growth 97:513-521
94. Zhang Y, Muhammed M (1989) Solubility of calcium sulfate dihydrate in nitric acid solutions containing calcium nitrate and phosphoric acid. J Chem Eng Data 34:121-124