Lords of the auspicious conjunction: Turco-Mongol imperial identity on the subcontinent

Journal of World History

Volumn 18, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 1-39

  Balabanlilar, Lisa ^a  

^a OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CULTURAL HISTORY; CULTURAL IDENTITY; CULTURAL TRADITION; IMPERIALISM; POLITICAL HISTORY; POLITICAL POWER; RELIGION;

ASIA; EURASIA; INDIA; SOUTH ASIA;

EID: 33847626981     PISSN: 10456007     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jwh.2007.0000     Document Type: Article

References (161)

1. Peter Jackson, The Delhi Sultanate (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 3.
2. Valuable work has been done on certain aspects of this legacy: Maria Eva Subtelny has worked on the Mughal retention of Timurid gardens, Richard Foltz has published a study of Mughal links to Central Asia, and Stephen F. Dale has identified the Mughals as the principal heirs of the Timurids.
3. John F. Richards, The New Cambridge History of India: The Mughal Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993; repr., 1995), p. 2.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid., p. 3.
6. Maria Eva Subtelny, "The Timurid Legacy: A Reaffirmation and a Reassessment," Cahiers D'Asie Centrale 3-4 (1997): 14.
7. Muzaffar Alam and Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Mughal State, 1526-1750 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 5.
8. Stephen F. Dale, "The Legacy of the Timurids," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, set. 3, 8 (1998): 43.
9. Nuruddin Muhammad Jahangir Gurkani, Jahangirnama (Tuzuk-i Jahangiri) (Tehran: Buny adi Farhangi Iran, 1359 1980]), hereafter cited as Tuzuk. All citations are to this edition, and all translations are mine unless specified.
10. have also used extensively the wonderful translation of Jahangir's memoir by Wheeler Thackston of Harvard University, The Jahangirnama, Memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India, ed. and trans. Wheeler M. Thackston (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).
11. Beatrice Forbes Manz, The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane, repr. ed. (1989; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
12. Beatrice Forbes Manz, "Tamerlane's Career and Its Uses," Journal of World History 13 (2002): 5.
13. Mir Dawlatshah Samarqandi, Tadhkirat al-shu'ara, in A Century of Princes: Sources on Timurid History and Art, ed. and trans. Wheeler Thackston (Cambridge, Mass., 1989), p. 13
14. Arthur F. Buehler, Sufi Heirs of the Prophet: The Indian Naqshbandiyya and the Rise of the Mediating Sufi Saint (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998), p. 107.
15. Sholeh Quinn, Historical Writing During the Reign of Shah Abbas I (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2000).
16. Ibid., p. 89.
17. Cornell Fleischer, Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire: The Historian Mustafa Ali (1541-1600) (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986), pp. 284-285.
18. Ibid., p. 278.
19. "Mutribi" al-Asamm Samarqandi, Conversations with Emperor Jahangir, trans. Richard C. Foltz, (Costa Mesa, Calif: Mazda Publishers, 1998), p. 30.
20. As explained in Thackston, Jahangirnama: "The letters in the words Sahib qiran-i sani (second Sahib Qiran) yield 1013. To this is added the first letter of iqbal (fortune's head) which has a numerical value of one, for the Hegira date of 1014," p. 28.
21. Dale, "Legacy of the Timurids," p. 46.
22. Ibid.
23. Gulru Necipoglu, "The Serial Portraits of Ottoman Sultans in Comparative Perspective," in The Sultan's Portrait (Istanbul: Isbank, 2000), p. 51.
24. Ibid., pp. 54-55.
25. Ibid., p. 57
26. Ibid., p. 48.
27. Richard C. Foltz, Mughal India and Central Asia (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 134.
28. Tuzuk, p. 16.
29. Ibid., pp. 16 and 53.
30. Ibid., p. 53.
31. Ibid., p. 64.
32. Bakhtawar Khan, Mir'at-i A'lam, in The History of India as Told by Its Own Historians, H. M. Elliot and John Dowson, 2nd ed. (London: Trubner and Co., 1875; New York: AMS Press, Inc., 1966), 7:162. Citations are to the AMS edition.
33. Waki'at-i Jahangiri, in Elliot and Dowson, History of India, 6:320.
34. Tuzuk, p. 369.
35. Abdul Hamid Lahori, Badshahnama, in Elliot and Dowson, History of India, 7:46.
36. Satish Chandra, Parties and Politics at the Mughal Court, 1707-1740 (Aligarh Muslim University, 1959), p. 257.
37. Maria Eva Subtelny, "Babur's Rival Relations," Der Islam 66 (1989): 106.
38. Joseph Fletcher, "Turco-Mongolian Monarchic Tradition in the Ottoman Empire," Harvard Ukrainian Studies 3-4 (1979-1980): 239.
39. Subtelny, "Babur's Rival Relations," p. 106.
40. Manz, Rise and Rule of Tamerlane, p. 15.
41. Leslie Peirce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 43.
42. Thomas W. Lentz and Glenn D. Lowry, Timur and the Princely Vision: Persian Art and Culture in the Fifteenth Century (Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1989), pp. 68 and 155.
43. Subtelny, "Babur's Rival Relations," p. 104.
44. Ibid., p. 111.
45. Dale, "Legacy of the Timurids," p. 44.
46. Gulbaden Begum, Humayunnama (The History of Humayun), Persian and English text, ed. and trans. Annette S. Beveridge (Delhi: Idarah-i Adabiyat-i Delli, 1972), p. 3. (Beveridge, trans., p. 84).
47. Humayunnama, p. 11.
48. Ibid., p. 22.
49. Zahir al-Din Muhammad Babur, Baburnama (Vekayi), ed. Eiji Mano (Kyoto: Syokado, 1995), pp. 558-559.
50. Ibid., pp. 187 and 285.
51. See Munis Faruqui, Princes and Power in the Mughal Empire, 1569-1657 (unpublished diss., Duke University, 2002).
52. Humayunnama, p. 22.
53. Abu Fazil Allami, Akbamama, trans. Henry Beveridge (1902-1939; rept., Delhi: Ess Ess Publications, 1979), 1:586.
54. Ibid, 3:105.
55. Inayet Khan, The Shah Jahan Nama of 'Inayet Khan, ed. W.E. Begley (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 537.
56. Muhammad-Hadi, preface to Jahangimama, p. 8.
57. Ibid., p. 11.
58. Tuzuk, p. 30.
59. Ram Prasad Khosla, Mughal Kingship and Nobility (Delhi: Idarah-i Adabiyat-i Delli, 1976), p. 100.
60. Tuzuk, p. 38;
61. Thackston, Jahangirnama, p. 55.
62. Tuzuk, pp. 403 and 595.
63. Ibid., p. 403.
64. Niccolao Manucci, Memoirs of the Mogul Court, trans. Michael Edwardes (London: Folio Society, 1957), pp. 37-38.
65. Tuzuk, pp. 394 and 403.
66. Colin Imber, The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), p. 97.
67. Ibid., p. 99.
68. See Peirce, Imperial Harem;
69. and Colin Imber, The Ottoman Empire, 1300- 1650 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), for a discussion of the Ottoman succession.
70. See Roger Savory, Iran under the Safavids (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980);
71. and H. R. Roemer, "The Safavids," in Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 6, The Timurid and Safavid Periods, ed. Peter Jackson and Lawrence Lockhart (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), for information regarding the Safavid succession.
72. Asad Beg, Wikaya-i Asad Beg, in Elliot and Dowson, History of India, 6:170.
73. See Manz, Rise and Rule of Tamerlane;
74. and Manz, "Temur and the Problem of a Conqueror's Legacy," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, set. 3, 8, no. 1 (1998): 21-41.
75. 'Ali ibn Abi Bakr al-Marghinani, The Hedaya or Guide: A Commentary on the Mussulman Laws, trans. Charles Hamilton, 2nd ed. (1870; repr., Lahore: Premier Book House, 1963).
76. Alan M. Geunther, "Hanafi Fiqh in Mughal India: The Fatawa-i Alamgiri," in India's Islamic Traditions, 711-1750, ed. Richard M. Eaton (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 210.
77. Stephen F. Dale and Alam Payind, "The Ahrari Waqf in Kabul in the Year 1546 and the Mughul Naqshbandiyyah," JOAS 119, no. 2 (1999): 210-233, 223.
78. Ibid., p. 223.
79. Ibid., p. 224.
80. Dale, "Legacy of the Timurids," p. 47.
81. Dale and Payind, "Ahrari Waqf," p. 225.
82. Simon Digby, Sufis and Soldiers in Awrangzeb's Deccan (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001).
83. Ibid., p. 3.
84. Tuzuk, pp. 175-176.
85. Mutribi al-Asamm Samarqandi, Conversations with Emperor Jahangir, p. 40.
86. Tuzuk, p. 503.
87. Ibid., p. 309
88. Ibid.
89. Ibid.
90. Maktubat-i Kalimi, Letters of Shah Kalimullah of Delhi, Delhi, 1302 AH, 75, in State and Culture in Medieval India, Khaliq Ahmad Nizami (New Delhi: Adam Publishers, 1985), p. 160.
91. Nasir al-Din Tusi, Akhlaq-i Nasiri, 5th ed. (1373; Tehran: Shirket-i Salami-ye Intishirat-e Khorazm, 1994).
92. Nizam ul-Mulk, Siyaset Nama (The Book of Government), trans. Hubert Darke (London, Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978).
93. Muzaffar Alam, "Akhlaqi Norms and Mughal Governance," in The Making of Indo-Persian Culture, ed. Muzaffar Alam et al. (New Delhi: Manohar, 2000), p. 78.
94. Alam, "Akhlaqi Norms," pp. 84-85.
95. Chandra Bhan, Chahar Chanan, and Bendraban Das Khwoshgu, Tazkera, quoted in Muzaffar Alam, "State Building under the Mughals: Religion, Culture and Politics," in Cahiers D'Asie Centrale, 3-4, L'Héritage Timouride, ed. Maria Szuppe (Tashkent and Aixen-Provence, 1997), p. 116.
96. Jalal al-Din Rumi, quoted in Muzaffar Alam, "State Building under the Mughals," p. 119.
97. Tuzuk, p. 32;
98. Thackston, Jahangimama, p. 40.
99. Stephen Blake, "The Patrimonial-Bureaucratic Empire of the Mughals," in The State in India, 1000-1700, ed. Hermann Kulke (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 287.
100. Stephen Dale, The Garden of the Eight Paradises: Babur and the Culture of Empire in Central Asia, Afghanistan and India (1483-1530) (Leiden: Brill, 2004), p. 182.
101. John F. Richards, "The Formulation of Imperial Authority under Akbar and Jahangir," in Power, Administration and Finance in Mughal India (Brookfield, Vt.: Varorium, 1993), pp. 268-269.
102. Tuzuk, p. 152.
103. Madeline C. Zilfi, The Politics of Piety: The Ottoman Ulema in the Postclassical Age (1600-1800) (Minneapolis, Minn.: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1988).
104. Tuzuk, p. 6.
105. David O. Morgan, "The 'Great "Yasa" of Chingiz Khan' and Mongol Law in the Ilkhanate," Bulletin of Oriental and African Studies, In Honor of Ann Lambton, 49, no. 1 (1986): 163-176.
106. Ibid., p. 173.
107. Tuzuk, p. 40
108. Morgan, "Great 'Yasa' of Chingiz Khan," p. 173.
109. M. E. Subtelny, "Mirak-i Sayyid Ghiyas and the Timurid Tradition of Landscape Architecture," Studia Iranica 24 (1995): 20.
110. Lentz and Lowry, Timur and the Princely Vision, p. 168.
111. Ibid., p. 162.
112. Sharifuddin Ali Yazdi, Zafarnama (Book of Triumph), in Thackston, A Century of Princes, p. 91.
113. Subtelny, "Mirak-i Sayyid Ghiyas," 1995.
114. Baburnama, p. 468.
115. Ibid., p. 482;
116. and Baburnama, 3 vols., trans. Wheeler M. Thackston (Chaghatai, Persian, and English) (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993), p. 642.
117. Ibid.
118. Baburnama, p. 483;
119. and Thackston, Baburnama, p. 644.
120. Dale, Garden of the Eight Paradises, p. 186.
121. Tuzuk, pp. 62-63.
122. Ibid, p. 62.
123. Ruy Gonzales de Clavijo, Embassy to Tamerlane, 1403-1406, trans. Guy le Strange (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1928), p. 216.
124. Ibid., p. 226.
125. Ibid., p. 243.
126. Ibid.
127. Tavernier (104) (2), I, pp. 96-97. in The Cambridge Economic History of India, by Tapan Raychaudhuri and Irfan Habib (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 1: 446.
128. Thackston, Translator's Preface, Jahangirnama, p. xix.
129. Peter Mundy, Travels, 2, 188ff.
130. as quoted by Thackston, Jahangirnama, p. xix.
131. Tuzuk, p. 207.
132. Dale, Garden of the Eight Paradises, p. 255.
133. Walter G. Andrews, Najaat Black, and Mehmet Kalpaki, eds. and trans., Ottoman Lyric Poetry (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997), p. 4.
134. Ibid., p. 140.
135. Dale, Garden of the Eight Paradises, p. 180.
136. Baburnama, p. 576;
137. and Annette Susan Beveridge, trans., The Baburnama in English (London: Luzac & Co., 1969), p. 648.
138. Baburnama, p. 576.
139. Ibid., p. 560;
140. and Dale, Garden of the Eight Paradises, p. 148.
141. Tuzuk, p. 212.
142. For a fascinating discussion of Iranian drug and alcohol usage, see the new monograph by Rudolph P. Matthee, The Pursuit of Pleasure: Drugs and Stimulants in Iranian History, 1500-1900 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005).
143. Clavijo, Embassy to Tamerlane, p. 231.
144. Humayunnama, p. 38,
145. Beveridge, trans., p. 131.
146. Asad Beg, Wikaya, in Elliot and Dowson, History of India, 6:155.
147. Elliot and Dowson, History of India, 6:260.
148. Tuzuk, p. 360.
149. Ibid., p. 32.
150. Thackston, Jahangirnama, p. 50.
151. Inayatulla, Takmila-i Akbar-Nama, in Elliot and Dowson, History of India, 6:114.
152. Ibid.
153. Lentz and Lowry, Timur and the Princely Vision, p. 165.
154. Necipoglu, "Serial Portraits of Ottoman Sultans," p. 24.
155. Maria Eva Subtelny, quoting Dawlatshah in "Arts and Politics in Early Sixteenth Century Central Asia," Central Asiatic Journal 27, nos. 1-2 (1983): 121-148, 123.
156. Mustafa Ali, Council for Sultans of 1581, ed. and trans. Andreas Tietze (Wein: Verlag Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenchaften, 1979), p. 28.
157. Ibid.
158. Abu'l Fazl, Insha'i Abu'l Fazl, pp. 52-54, in Mukatabat-i-Allam (Insha'i Abu'l Fazl), Mansura Haider (New Delhi: Indian Council of Historical Research, 1998), p. 116.
159. Dale, "Legacy of the Timurids," pp. 43-51.
160. Dale, Garden of the Eight Paradises, p. 466.
161. 'Inayat Khan, Shah Jahan Nama, p. 356.