Temür and the problem of a conqueror's legacy

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society

Volumn 8, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 21-41

  Manz, Beatrice Forbes ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0004813272     PISSN: 13561863     EISSN: 14740591     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S1356186300016412     Document Type: Article

References (52)

1. G. Herrmann, “Zur Intitulatio timuridischer Urkunden”, Zeitschrift der deutschen tnorgenlandischen Gesellschaji, Supplement II (1974), XVIII deutscher Orientaiistentag, J972, p. 518; Linda Komaroff, “The epigraphy of Timurid coinage: some preliminary remarks”, American Numismatic Society, Museum Notes, XXXI (1986), pp. 212-15.
2. The dates of Temiir's early campaigns are given variably in the contemporary histories, due, apparently, to difficulties in interpreting the animal cycle. See B. F. Manz, The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane (Cambridge, 1989), p. 181, note 76.
3. Sharafal-Din ‘Ali Yazdi, Zafamama, ed. Muhammad ‘AbbasI (Tehran, 1336/1957) (hereafter ZNY); i, pp. 282-3; Nizam al-Din Shami, ed., F. Tauer, Histoire des conquetes de Tamerlan intitulee Zafamama, par Nizamuddtn Saml (Prague, i, 1937, ii (consisting of additions made by Hafiz-i Abru), 1956), (hereafter ZNS) i, pp. 96-7. Lughman's father Taghay Temiir, though descended from Chinggis Khan's brother, was accepted as one of the most legitimate of the Ilkhanid successors, since the house of Hulegii was largely exhausted. Hafiz-i Abru, ed. F. Tauer, Cinq opuscules de Hafiz-i Abru concernant Vhistoire de I'lran au temps de Tamerlan (Prague, 1959), p. 5.
4. The duel fought out between Tokhtamish and Temiir from 1385 to 1396 is relatively poorly chronicled in the histories of Temiir's reign, written by Persian authors. This historiographical tradition may have skewed our perception; it is interesting to compare the court histories to the short account of Temiir's reign written for his grandson Iskandar Sultan, in which his rivalry with Tokhtamish holds a central place “Synoptic Account of the House of Timur”, in Wheeler M. Thackston, ed. and trans., A Century of Princes (Cambridge, Mass., 1989), pp. 237-9.
5. V. V. Bartol'd, “Tokhtamish”, Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1st ed.; M. G. Safargaliev, Raspad Zolotoi Ordy (Saransk, i960), pp. 171-82.
6. ZNS, i p. 170.
7. ZNY, ii, pp. 33, 423, Khwandamir, trans., Wheeler M. Thackston, Habibu's-siyar, Tome Three, Sources of Oriental Languages and Literatures, No. 24 (Cambridge, Mass.), 1994, i, p. 42.
8. A. Z. V. Togan, “Timurs Osteuropapolitik”, Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, CVIII (1958), pp. 295-6; B. A. F. Manz, “Tamerlane and the symbolism of sovereignty”, Iranian Studies, XXI/i-2 (1988), pp. 109-14; J. E. Woods, “Timur's genealogy”, in M. M. Mazzaoui and V. B. Moreen, eds., Intellectual Studies on Islam, Essays written in Honor of Martin B. Dickson (Salt Lake City, 1990), pp. 100-04.
9. ZNS, pp. 128, 176, 247, 286; ‘Abd al-Husayn Nawa'i, Asnad wa makatibat-i tarikht-i Iran (Tehran, 1977), pp. 20, 70, 75, 77.
10. Ahmad Ibn'Arabshah, trans., J. H. Sanders, Tamerlane or Timur the Great Amir (London, 1936), P.299.
11. H. Inalcik, “Bayazid I”, in Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed.
12. Togan, “Timurs Osteuropapolitik”, passim; Nava'I, Asnad, pp. 94, 99.
13. Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo, trans., G. Le Strange, Narrative of the Spanish Embassy to the Court of Timur at Samarkand in the years 1403-1406 (London, 1928), p. 221.
14. Ibn ‘Arabshah, p. 125; MIrza Muhammad Haydar Dughlat, A History of the Moghuls of Central Asia, being the Tarikh-i Rashidi of Mirza Muhammad Haydar, Dughlat, trans., E. Denison Ross, ed., N. Elias (London and New York, 1898), p. 53, ZNY, ii, p. 450.
15. Ibn ‘Arabshah, pp. 117-18; Manz, Rise and Rule, pp. 90-106.
16. Manz, Rise and Rule, pp. 37-8.
17. Manz, Rise and Rule, pp. 109-18, 167-75.
18. Manz, Rise and Rule, p. 116.
19. Safargaliev, Raspad, pp. 144-58; ZNY, i, pp. 392-6.
20. ZNY, i, p. 196; ZNS, ii, p. 39.
21. ZNY, i, p. 472; ZNS, ii, p. 170; also see Manz, Rise and Rule, p. 116 and note 48, p. 195.
22. V. V. Bartol'd, Ulugbek i ego vremia, in Sochineniia, ii/2, p. 70; ZNY, ii, p. 451; Ibn ‘Arabshah, pp. 47, 212-13,224-5.
23. Fakhr al-Din ‘All b. Husayn al-Wa'i? al-Kashifi, Rashahat ‘ayn al-hayat, ed. ‘All Ashgar Mu'iniyan (Tehran, 2536), p. 391.
24. Patricia Crone, Pre-lndustrial Societies (Oxford and Cambridge, Mass., 1989), pp. 35-57.
25. The sources report rebellions by Iranians straightforwardly, while disloyal behaviour by amirs and princes after about 1389 is often disguised, or blamed on the evil influence of Persian advisors, from whom such behaviour presumably could be expected. See for instance the accounts of Amiranshah's, Pir Muhammad b. ‘Umar Shaykh's and Sultan Husayn's disloyalty. (ZNY, ii, pp. 48-50, 168, 228). Several rebellions by amirs under Temiir, mentioned in the later genealogy, the Mu'izz al-ansab, never appear in the histories. (Mu'izz al-ansab fi shajarat alansab, ms. Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale 67, ff. 96b-97a.)
26. Manz, Rise and Rule, pp. 114-15; Jean Aubin, “Le khanat de Cagatai et le Khorassan (1334-1380)”, Turcica, VIII/2 (1976), pp. 51-3; Jiirgen Paul, “Scheiche und Herrscher im Khanat Cagatay”, Der Islam, LXVII/2 (1990), pp. 304-8.
27. Bartol'd, Ulugbek, pp. 45, 58, 96-8; H. R. Roemer, “The Successors of Timur”, in Cambridge History of Iran, VI (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 103-5.
28. Taj al-Salmani, ed. and trans. H. R. Roemer, Sams al-Hitsn: eine Chronik vom Tode Timurs bis zmnjahre von Taj al-Salmani (Wiesbaden, 1956) (hereafter Shams), pp. 121-2; Manz, Rise and Rule, pp. 131-7.
29. Woods, “Genealogy”, p. 115. 55 Shiro Ando, Timuritiische Emire nach detn Mu'izz al-ansab (Berlin, 1992), pp. 4, 120-71, 219.
30. For the responsibilities of ‘Alika, Firuzshah and Baysunghur in the dlwan see Majma˓ f. 532b, cAbd al-Razzaq Samarqandi, Mafia’ al-sa'dayn wa Majma’ al-bahrayn, ed. Muhammad Shafi’ (Lahore, 1360-8/1941-9) (hereafter Matta˓), ii/2, pp. 656, 665, 690, 747, 752-5, 793, 837-42. For sharing of power in dlwan among viziers, and for dismissals, see Ghiyath al-Din Khwandamir, Dastural-u>uzard’, ed. Sa'id Nafisi (Tehran, 1317/1938-9), pp. 352-3, 357-61; Ahmad b. Jala] al-Din Fasih Khwafi, Mujmal-ifaslhl, ed. Muhammad Farrukh (Mashhad, 1339/1960-1), pp. 230, 235, 257, 259, 275, 292; and Matla’, ii/2, pp. 670, 673.
31. Manz, “Tamerlane and the symbolism of sovereignty”, p. 113.
32. Sultaniyya itself was often threatened and sometimes taken, but not allowed to remain long outside Timurid control. Majma’, ff. 493, 498, 502b, 521b-22b, 553a-54a, 591a; Math’, pt. 2, pp. 320-3, 899-902.
33. For the will of a dead sovereign, see Mu'in al-Din Natanzi, ed. Jean Aubin, Extmits du Muntakhab al-tavarikhi Mu'ini (Anonym d'Iskandar) (Tehran, 1336/1957) (hereafter Muntakhab), p. 222, and D. O. Morgan, “The ‘Great Yasa of Chingiz Khan’ and Mongol law in the Ilkhanate”, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, XLIX/i (1986), p. 171. For discussion of Temiir's testament, Majma’, ff. 372a-b, 430b, 431b; Muhammad b. Fadl Allah al-Musawl, Tarikh-i Khayrat, ms. Istanbul, Turhan Hadica Sultan 224, f. 433b, 435b-37a.
34. Majma’, f. 365a; Musawi, Tarikh-i khayrat, ff. 436-73.
35. Majma\ ff. 372a-b. Pir Muhammad, according to the histories, believed that this accorded with Temur's wishes since Temiir had handed his mother to Shahrukh, and thus intended Pir Muhammad to look to Shahrukh as his superior.
36. Hafi?-i Abru, Majmu'a al-tawarlkh, ms. Istanbul, Damad Ibrahim Pasha 919, ff. 927a-b, 929a-b; Shams, pp. 15-16. For Shahrukh's invocation of Temur's will in correspondence see Nava'i, Asndd, pp. 141-2.
37. Aka, Mirza Sahruh, pp. 178, 180-1; Matla’, ii/2, pp. 792, 834.
38. Komaroff, “Epigraphy”, pp. 216-17.
39. M. Subtelny, “The Sunni revival under Shah-Rukh and its promoters: a study of the connection between ideology and higher learning in Timurid Iran”, Proceedings of the 27th Meeting ofHaneda Memorial Hall Symposium on Central Asia and Iran, August 30, 1993 (Kyoto, I993(?)), pp. 14-23; Jalal al-Din Abu Muhammad al-Qayini, Nasa'ihi Shahrukhl, ms. Vienna, Nationalbibliotek, Cod. A.F. 112, ff. ib-2b; Majma’, f. 486b; Woods, “Genealogy”, pp. 115-16.
40. Subtelny, “The Sunni revival”, pp. 15-19; Woods, “Genealogy”, pp. 115-16.
41. Baitol'd “Khalifa i Sultan”, Sochineniia, VI (Moscow, 1966), pp. 46-8; Mu'izz, f. 133b; Subtelny, “Sunni revival”, p. 20; Aka, Mirza Sahruh, pp. 183-4; Matla’, p. 729 (the yasa is here referred to by another name, the tora.)
42. See for instance the Orkhon inscriptions: V. Thomsen, Inscriptions de I'Orkhon dechifiees (Helsingsfors, 1896), pp. 97-106, 114-17. MahmQd al-Kashghari echoes this concern for purity: D'twan Lughat al-Turk: Mahmud Kasgari, Compendium of Turkic Dialects, ed. and trans. R. Dankoff in collaboration with James Kelly, Turkish Sources, vii (Cambridge, Mass., 1982), pp. 83, 115, 124-5.
43. We find Mongol amirs for instance in the armies of both the Kartids and the Muzaffarids. See Shabankara'i, pp. 316, 325; ZNS (HA), ii, pp. 58-9, F. Tauer, Cinq opuscules, p. 32; Aubin, “Khanat”, p. 50.
44. Mujmal, III, throughout; Majma’, throughout; Shams al-husn, pp. 17, 23. 31 Komaroff, “Epigraphy”, pp. 210-13.
45. Woods, “Genealogy”, p. 121, note 75; see also Mansura Haider, “The sovereign in the Timurid state”, Turcica, VIII/2 (1976), p. 70, citing C. J. Rodgers, Catalogue of the Coins (Calcutta, 1894), pp. 140-1.
46. C. Melville, “Padshah-i Islam: the conversion of Sultan Mahmud Ghazan Khan”, Pembroke Papers, 1 (1990), p. 171; Majma’, f. 2a; Majmu'a, f. 3a.
47. Nava'i, Asnad, pp. 164-5, 180-1, 187, 215-16.
48. Woods, “Genealogy”, pp. 87-8.
49. M. Subtelny, “Centralizing reform and its opponents in the late Timurid period”, Iranian Studies, XXI/1-2, pp. 123-51.
50. M. Subtelny, “Socioeconomic bases of cultural patronage under the later Timurid”, International Journal of Middle East Studies, XX (1988), pp. 479-505.
51. Woods, “Rise of Timurid historiography”, pp. 82-3.
52. Bombaci, Histoire de la literature turque, trans. Melikoff (Paris, 1968), pp. 109, 111-12; Esin, “Bakshi” in Arts of the Book, p. 288; Kutadgu Bilig, dated 845/1439, Nationalbibliotek, Austria, ms. N H 13; M-R, Seguy, The Miraculous Journey of Mahomet: Miraj nameh (New York, 1977).