The atmospheric global electric circuit: An overview

Atmospheric Research

Volumn 84, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 91-110

  Siingh, Devendraa ^a,b   Gopalakrishnan, V ^a   Singh, R P ^c   Kamra, A K ^a   Singh, Shubha ^c   Pant, Vimlesh ^a   Singh, R ^d   Singh, A K ^e  

^a INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TROPICAL METEOROLOGY   (India)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TARTU   (Estonia)

^c BANARAS HINDU UNIVERSITY   (India)

^d INDIAN INSTITUTE OF GEOMAGNETISM   (India)

^e BUNDELKHAND UNIVERSITY   (India)

Author keywords

Atmospheric conductivity; Columnar resistance; Earth ionosphere wave guide; Fair weather electricity; Galactic cosmic rays; Global electric circuit; Global temperature; Interplanetary magnetic field; Ion aerosol interaction; ionospheric magnetospheric dynamo; optical emissions (sprites, blue jets, elves); Schumann resonance; Solar activity; Space weather; Thunderstorm and lightning; Weather and climate

Indexed keywords

ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOLS; ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE; CLOUDS; COSMIC RAYS; IONOSPHERE; LIGHTNING; THUNDERSTORMS;

ATMOSPHERIC CONDUCTIVITY; ATMOSPHERIC GLOBAL ELECTRIC CIRCUIT; COLUMNAR RESISTANCE; FAIR-WEATHER ELECTRICITY; GALACTIC COSMIC RAYS; INTERPLANETARY MAGNETIC FIELD; ION-AEROSOL INTERACTION; IONOSPHERIC-MAGNETOSPHERIC DYNAMO; SCHUMANN RESONANCE; SPACE WEATHER;

ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY;

AEROSOL; ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY; COSMIC RAY; IONOSPHERE; LIGHTNING; MAGNETIC FIELD; MAGNETOSPHERE; THUNDERSTORM;

EID: 33847421433     PISSN: 01698095     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.atmosres.2006.05.005     Document Type: Article

References (151)

1. Adlerman E.J., and Williams E.R. Seasonal variation of the global electric circuit. J. Geophys. Res. 101 (1996) 29679-29688
2. Andreae M.O., Rosenfeld D., Artaxo P., Costa A.A., Frank G.P., Longo K.M., and Silva-Dias M.A.F. Smoking rainclouds over the Amazon. Science 303 (2004) 1337-1342
3. Barr R., Llanwyn J.D., and Rodger C.J. ELF and VLF radio waves. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 62 (2000) 1689-1718
4. Barrington-Leigh C.P., Inan U.S., Stanley M., and Cummer S.A. Sprites triggered by negative lightning discharges. Geophys. Res. Lett. 26 (1999) 3605-3608
5. Bering III E.A. The global circuit: Global thermometer, weather by product or climate modulator?. Rev. Geophys. (1995) 845-862 (supplement copy Part II)
6. Bering III E.A., Few A.A., and Benbrook J.R. The global electric circuit. Phys. Today (1998) 24-30 (Oct. issue)
7. Bering III E.A., Benbrook J.R., Garret J.A., Paredes A.M., Wescott E.M., Moudry D.R., Sentman D.D., and Stenback-nielsen H.C. The electrodynamics of sprites. Geophys. Res. Lett. 29 (2002) 10.1029/2001/GL 013267
8. Blanc N., and Richmond A.D. The ionosphere distribution dynamic. J. Geophys. Res. 85 (1979) 1669-1686
9. Boccippio D.J., Williams E.R., Heckman S.J., Lyons W.A., Baker I.T., and Boldi R. Sprites, ELF transients and positive ground strokes. Science 269 (1995) 1088-1091
10. Carslaw K.S., Harrison R.G., and Kirkby J. Cosmic rays, clouds, and climate. Science 298 (2002) 1732-1737
11. Cho M., and Rycroft M.J. Computer simulation of electric field structure and optical emission from cloud top to ionosphere. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 60 (1998) 871-888
12. Cobb W.E. Evidence of a solar influence on the atmospheric electric element at Mauna Lao observatory. Mon. Weather Rev. 95 (1967) 905
13. Cobb W.E., and Wells H.J. The electrical conductivity of oceanic air and its correlation to global atmospheric pollution. J. Atmos. Sci. 27 (1970) 814-819
14. Cummer S.A., Inan U.S., Bell T.F., and Barrington-Leigh C.P. ELF radiation produced by electrical currents in sprites. Geophys. Res. Lett. 25 (1998) 1281-1285
15. Dungey J.W. Interplanetary magnetic field and auroral zones. Phys. Rev. Lett. 6 (1961) 47-48
16. Fishman G., Bhat P.N., Mallozzi R., Horack J.M., Koshut T., Kouveliotou C., Pendleton G.N., Meegan C.A., Wilson R.B., Paciesas W.S., Goodman S.J., and Christian H.J. Discovery of intense gamma rays flashes of atmospheric origin. Science 264 (1994) 1313-1316
17. Forbes J.M. The equatorial electrojet. Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 19 (1981) 469-504
18. Fullekrug M., and Fraser-Smith A.C. Global lightning and climate variability inferred from ELF magnetic field variations. Geophys. Res. Lett. 25 (1998) 2411-2414
19. Galeev A.A., Kuznetsova M.M., and Zelenyi L.M. Magnetopause stability threshold for patchy reconnection. Space Sci. Rev. 44 (1986) 1
20. Gonzalez W.D., Joselyn J.A., Kamide Y., Krochl H.W., Rostoker G., Tsurutani B.T., and Vasyliunas V.M. What is geomagnetic storm?. J. Geophys. Res. 99 (1994) 5771
21. Hale L.C. Terrestrial atmospheric electricity. Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Technology. Ist ed. vol. 13 (1987) 736
22. Hale L.C. The coupling of ELF/VLF energy from lightning and MeV particle to the middle atmosphere, ionosphere and global circuit. J. Geophys. Res. 99 (1994) 21089-21096
23. Hansen J.E., and Lebedeff S. Global trends of measured surface air temperature. J. Geophys. Res. 92 (1987) 13345-13372
24. Harrison R.G. The global atmospheric electric circuit and climate. Surv. Geophys. 25 (2005) 441-484
25. Harrison R.G., and Alpin K.L. Mid-nineteenth century smoke concentrations near London, Atmos. Environ. 36 (2002) 4037-4043
26. Harrison R.G., and Alpin K.L. Nineteenth century Parisian smoke variation inferred from Eiffel Tower atmospheric electrical observations, Atmos. Environ. 37 (2003) 5319-5324
27. Harrison R.G., and Carslaw K.S. Ion-aerosol-cloud processes in the lower atmosphere. Rev. Geophys. 41 (2003) 10.1029/2002RG000114
28. Harrison R.G., and Ingram W.J. Air-earth current measurements at Kew, London. Atmos. Res. 76 (2005) 49-64
29. Hays P.B., and Roble R.G. A quasi-static model of global atmospheric electricity 1 The lower atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 84 (1979) 3291-3305
30. Heckman S.J., Williams E.R., and Boldi R. Total global lightning inferred from Schumann resonance measurements. J. Geophys. Res. 103 (1998) 31775-31779
31. Hill R.D. Spherical capcitor hypothesis of the Earth's electric field. Pure Appl. Geophys. 84 (1971) 67-75
32. Hiraki Y., Lizhu T., Fukunishi H., Nambu K., and Fujiwara H. Development of a new numerical model for investigation the energetic sprites. Eos Trans. AGU 83 47 (2002) (Fall Meet. Suppl. Abstract A11 C-0105)
33. Holzworth R.H. Conductivity and electric field variations with altitude in the stratosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 96 (1991) 12,857-12,864
34. Holzworth R.H., and Hu H. Global electrodynamics from superpressure balloons. Adv. Space Res. 16 (1995) 131-140
35. Hoppel W.A., Anderson R.V., and Willett J.C. Atmospheric electricity in the planetary boundary layer. Study in Geophysics-The Earth Electrical Environment (1986), National Academy Press, Washington, DC 149-165
36. Hu, H., 1994. Global and Local Electrical Phenomena in the Stratosphere. Ph.D. dissertation. Univ. of Washington, Washington.
37. Hu H., Li Q., and Holzworth R.H. Thunderstorm related variations in stratospheric conductivity measurements. J. Geophys. Res. 94 (1989) 16429-16435
38. Huang E., Williams E., Boldi R., Heckman S., Lyons W., Taylor M., Nelson T., and Wong C. Criteria for sprites and elves based on Schumann resonance observations. J. Geophys. Res. 104 (1999) 16943-16964
39. Inan U.S., Bell T.F., and Ridriguez J.V. Heating and ionization of the lower ionosphere by lightning. Geophys. Res. Lett. 18 (1991) 705-708
40. Israelsson S., and Knudsen E. Effect of radioactive fallout from a nuclear power plant accident on electrical parameters. J. Geophys. Res. 91 (1986) 11909-11910
41. Israelsson S., Schutte T., Pisler E., and Lundquist S. Increased occurrence of lightning flashes in Sweden during 1986. J. Geophys. Res. 92 (1987) 10996-10998
42. Jones D.L. ELF sferics and lightning effects on the middle and upper atmosphere. Modern Radio Sci. (1999) 171-189
43. Jungwirth P., Rosenfeld D., and Buch V. A possible molecular mechanism of thundercloud electrification. Atmos. Res. 76 (2005) 190-205
44. Kamra A.K., Murugavel P., Pawar S.D., and Gopalakrishnan V. Background aerosol concentration derived from the atmospheric conductivity measurements made over the Indian ocean during INDOX. J. Geophys. Res. 106 (2001) 28643-28651
45. Kasemir H.W. Theoretical problem of the global atmospheric electric current. In: Dolezalek H., and Reiter R. (Eds). Electrical Processes in Atmospheres (1977), Steinkopff Verlag, Darmstadt 423-438
46. Kniveton D.R., and Tinsley B.A. Daily changes in global cloud cover and Earth transits of the heliospheric current sheet. J. Geophys. Res. 109 D11201 (2004) 10.1029/2003D004232
47. Krider E., and Musser J.A. The Maxwell current density under thunderstorm. J. Geophys. Res. 87 (1982) 11171-11176
48. Lakhina G.S. Electrodynamic coupling between different regions of the atmosphere. Curr. Sci. 64 (1993) 660-666
49. Lee L.C., Johnson J.R., and Ma Z.W. Kinetic Alfven wave as a source of plasma transport at the dayside magnetopause. J. Geophys. Res. 99 (1994) 17405
50. Lester M., and Cowley S.W.H. The solar terrestrial interaction and its importance for space-weather. Adv. Space Res. 26 (2000) 79-88
51. Lyons W. Sprites observations above the US high plains in relation to their parent thunderstorms systems. J. Geophys. Res. 101 (1996) 29641-29652
52. Makino M., and Ogawa T. Response of atmospheric electric field and air-earth current to variations of conductivity profiles. J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 46 (1984) 431-445
53. Manes A. Particular air pollution trends deduced from atmospheric conductivity measurements at Bet-Dagan (Israel). In: Dolezalek H., and Reiter R. (Eds). Electrical Processes in Atmospheres (1977), Dr. Dietrich Steinkopff Verlag, Darmstadt 109-118
54. Marcz F., and Harrison R.G. Long-term changes in atmospheric electrical parameters observed at Nagycenk (Hungary) and UK observatories at Eskdalemuir and Kew. Ann. Geophys. 21 (2003) 2193-2200
55. Markson R. Solar modulation of atmospheric electrification and possible implications for the sun-weather relationship. Nature 273 (1978) 103-109
56. Markson R. Modulation of the earth's electric field by cosmic radiation. Nature 291 (1981) 304-308
57. Markson R. Tropical convection, ionospheric potential and global circuit variations. Nature 320 (1986) 588-594
58. Markson R., and Lane-Smith D.R. Global change monitoring through the temporal variation of ionospheric potential. preprint volume, Fifth Symposium on Global Change Studies and the Symposium on Global Electric Circuit, Global change and the Meteorological Applications of Lightning Information, Ann. Meeting AMS, Nashville, TN, Jan. 1994. Am. Meteor. Soc., Boston (1994) 279-287
59. Markson R., and Muir M. Solar wind control of the Earth's electric field. Science 206 (1980) 979-990
60. Markson R., and Price C. Ionospheric potential as a proxy index for global temperatures. Atmos. Res. 51 (1999) 309-314
61. Marsh N., and Svensmark H. Cosmic rays, cloud, and climate. Space Sci. Rev. 94 (2000) 215-230
62. Martell E.A. Enhanced ion production in convective storms by transpired radon isotopes and their decay products. J. Geophys. Res. 90 (1985) 5909-5916
63. Matsushita S. Solar quiet and lunar daily variation fields. In: Matsushita S., and Campbell W.H. (Eds). Physics of Geomagnetic Phenomena (1967), Academic Press, New York 301
64. Milikh G., and Valdivia J.A. Model of gamma rays flashes fractal lightning. Geophys. Res. Lett. 26 (1999) 525
65. Miura A. Simulation of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability at the magnetosphere boundary. J. Geophys. Res. 92 (1987) 3195-3206
66. Morita Y., and Ishikawa H. On recent measurements of electric parameters and aerosols in the oceanic atmosphere. In: Dolezalek H., and Reiter R. (Eds). Electrical Processes in Atmosphere (1977), Steinkopff, Darmstadt, Germany 126-130
67. Muhleisen R. The global circuit and its parameters. In: Dolezalek H., and Reiter R. (Eds). Electrical Processes in Atmosphere (1977), Steinkopff, Darmstadt 467-476
68. Nagano I., Yagitani S., Migamura K., and Makino S. Full wave analysis of elves created by lightning-generated electromagnetic pulses. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 65 (2003) 615-625
69. Neubert T. On sprites and their exotic kin. Nature 300 (2003) 747-748
70. Ney E.P. Cosmic radiation and the weather. Nature 183 (1959) 451-452
71. Nickolaenko A.P., Hayakawa M., and Hobara Y. Temporal variation of the global lightning activity deduced from Schumann resonance. J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 58 (1996) 1699-1709
72. Ogawa T. Fair-weather electricity. J. Geophys. Res. 90 (1985) 5951-5960
73. Owon C.J., and Cowley S.W.H. Heikkila mechanism for impulsive plasma transport through the magnetopause a re-examination. J. Geophys. Res. 96 (1991) 5574-5575
74. Parkinson W.C., and Torrenson O.W. The diurnal variation the electrical potential of the atmosphere over oceans. Compt. Rend de l'Assemblee de Stockholm, 1930; IUGG. Sect. Terrest. Magn. Electr. Bull. vol. 8 (1931) 340-345
75. Pasko V.P. Electric jet. Nature 423 (2003) 927-929
76. Pasko V.P., and George J.J. Three-dimensional modeling of blue jets and blue starters. J. Geophys. Res. 107 (2002) 1458 10.1029/2002JA009473
77. Pasko V.P., Inan U.S., Bell T.F., and Taranenko Y.N. Sprites produced by quasi-electrostatic heating and ionization in the lower ionosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 102 (1997) 4529-4561
78. Pasko V.P., Stanley M.A., Mathews J.D., Inan U.S., and Wood T.G. Electrical discharge from a thundercloud top to the ionosphere. Nature 416 (2002) 152-154 (2002)
79. Pawar S.D., and Kamra A.K. Evaluation of lightning and the possible initiation triggering of lightning discharges by the lower positive charge center in an isolated thundercloud in the tropics. J. Geophys. Res. 109 D02205 (2004) 10.1029/2003JD003735
80. Price C. Global surface temperature and the atmospheric electric circuit. Geophys. Res. Lett. 20 (1993) 1363-1366
81. Price C. Lightning, atmospheric electricity and climate change. In: Barron E.J. (Ed). Fifth Symposium on Global Change Studies and the Symposium on Global Electrical Circuit, Global Change and the Meteorological Applications of Lightning Information. Am. Met. Soc. (1994) 273 Boston, MA.
82. Price C. Evidence for a link between global lightning activity and upper tropospheric water vapour. Nature 406 (2000) 290-293
83. Price C., and Rind D. A simple lightning parameterization for calculating global lighting distributions. Geophys. Res. 97 (1992) 9919-9933
84. Price C., and Rind D. Possible implication of global climate change and global lightning distributions and frequencies. J. Geophys. Res. 99 (1994) 10823-10831
85. Price C., Asfur M., Lyons W., and Nelson T. An improved ELF/VLF method for globally geolocating sprites producing lightning. Geophys. Res. Lett. 29 3 (2002) 10.1029/2002/GL013519
86. Pudovkin M.I., and Babushkina S.V. Atmospheric transparency variations associated with geomagnetic disturbances. J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 54 (1992) 1135-1138
87. Rastogi R.G., and Patel V.L. Effect of interplanetary magnetic field on ionosphere over the magnetic equator. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Earth Planet. Sci.) 82 (1975) 121-141
88. Reeve N., and Toumi R. Lightning activity as an indicator of climate change. Q. J. R. Soc. 125 (1999) 893-903
89. Reid G.C. Electrical structure of the middle-atmosphere, in Study in Geophysics: the earth's electrical environment. In: Krider E.P., and Roble R.G. (Eds) (1986), National Academy Press, Washington, DC 183-194
90. Reiter R. Case study concerning the impact of solar activity upon potential gradient and air earth current in low troposphere. Pure Appl. Geophys. 94 (1972) 218-225
91. Retails D., and Retails A. Effects of air pollution and wind on the large-ion concentration in the air above Athens. J. Geophys. Res. 103 (1998) 13927-13932
92. Richmond A.D. Electric field in the ionospheric and plasmaspheric on quiet days. J. Geophys. Res. 81 (1976) 1447-1450
93. Richmond A.D. Upper-atmospheric electric field sources. Study in Geophysics-The Earth's Electrical Environment (1986), National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 195-205
94. Roble R.G. On solar-terrestrial relation in atmospheric electricity. J. Geophys. Res. 90 (1985) 6000-6012
95. Roble R.G. On modeling component processes in the earth's global electric circuit. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 53 (1991) 831-847
96. Roble R.G., and Tzur I. The global atmospheric electrical circuit. Study in Geophysics-The Earth's Electrical Environment (1986), National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 206-231
97. Rodger C.J. Red sprites, upward lightning and VLF Perturbations. Rev. Geophys. 37 (1999) 317-336
98. Rosenfeld D., and Lensky I.M. Space borne-sensed insights into precipitation formation processes in maritime and continental clouds. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 79 (1998) 2457-2476
99. Rosenfeld D., and Woodley W.L. Closing the 5-year circle: from cloud seeding to space and back to climate change through precipitation physics. In: Tao W.K., and Adler R. (Eds). Cloud Systems, Hurricanes, and the Tropical Rainfall Measuring (2003)
100. Rowe Jr. J.F., and Mathews J.D. Low-latitude nighttime E region conductivities. J. Geophys. Res. 78 (1973) 7461-7470
101. Rowland H.L. Theories and simulations of elves, sprite and blue jets. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 60 (1998) 831-844
102. Ruhnke L.H. Area averaging of atmospheric current. J. Geomagn. Geoelectr. 21 (1969) 453-462
103. Russell C.T., and Fleishman M. Joint control of region-2 field aligned current by the east-west component of the interplanetary electric field and polar cap illumination. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 64 (2002) 1803-1808
104. Rycroft M.J. Interactions between whistler-mode waves and energetic electrons in the coupled system formed by the magnetosphere, ionosphere and atmosphere. J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 53 (1994) 849-858
105. Rycroft M.J. Electrical processes coupling the atmosphere and ionosphere: an overview. J.Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 68 (2006) 445-456
106. Rycroft M.J., and Cho M. Modeling electric and magnetic fields due to thunderclouds and lightning from cloud-tops to the ionosphere. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 60 (1998) 889-893 (1998)
107. Rycroft M.J., and Fullekrug M. The initiation and evaluation of SPECIAL. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 66 (2004) 1103-1113
108. Rycroft M.J., Israelsson S., and Price C. The global atmospheric electric circuit, solar activity and climate change. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 62 (2000) 1563-1576
109. Sapkota B.K., and Varshneya N.C. On the global atmospheric electric circuit. J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 52 (1990) 1-20
110. Satori G. Monitoring Schumann resonance -II. Daily and seasonal frequency variations. J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. 58 (1996) 1483-1488
111. Satori G., and Zieger B. El Nino related meridional oscillation of global lightning activity. Geophys. Res. Lett. 26 (1999) 1365-1368
112. Schindler K. On the role of irregularities in plasma energy into the magnetosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 84 (1979) 7257-7266
113. Schlegel K., and Fullekrug M. Schumann resonance parameter changes during high energy particle precipitation. J. Geophys. Res. 104 (1999) 10111-10118
114. Schlegel K., Diendorfer G., Thern S., and Schmidt M. Thunderstorms, lightning and solar activity-Middle Europe. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 63 (2001) 1705-1713
115. Sentman D.D. Schuman resonance. In: Volland H. (Ed). Hand book of Atmospheric Electrodynamics vol. 1 (1995), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA
116. Sentman D.D., and Fraser B.J. Simultaneous observations at Schumann resonance in California and Australia: Evidence for intensity modulation by the local height of the D-region. J. Geophys. Res. 96 (1999) 15973-15984
117. th Annual Conference on Atmospheric Electricity. Soc. of Atmos. Electr. of Japan, Osaka, Japan (1996)
118. Singh R.P., Patel R.P., Ashok K., and Das I.M.L. Lightning generated ELF, VLF, Optical waves and their diagnostic features. Indian J. Phys. 76B (2002) 1-15
119. Singh D.K., Singh R.P., and Kamra A.K. The electrical environment of the Earth's atmosphere: a review. Space Sci. Rev. 113 (2004) 375-408
120. Siingh D., Singh R.P., Kamra A.K., Gupta P.N., Singh R., Gopalakrishnan V., and Singh A.K. Review of electromagnetic coupling between the Earth's atmosphere and the space environment. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 67 (2005) 637-658
121. Somayajulu V.V., Reddy C.A., and Viswanathan K.S. Simultaneous electric field changes in the equatorial electrojet in phase with polar caps latitude changes during a magnetic storm. Geophys. Res. Lett. 12 (1985) 473-475
122. Spiro R.W., and Wolf R.A. Electrodynamics of convection in the inner magnetosphere. In: Poterma T.A. (Ed). Magnetospheric Current (1984), American Geophysics Union, Washington, D.C. 247-259
123. Steiger S.M., and Orville R.E. Cloud-to-ground lightning enhancement over southern hemisphere. Geophys. Res. Lett. 30 (2003) 1975 10.2029/2003GL017723
124. Strangeways R.J., and Raeder J. On the transition from collision to collisional magnetohydrodynamics. J. Geophys. Res. 106 (2001) 1955-1960
125. Stringfellow M.F. Lightning incidence in Britain and the solar cycle. Nature 249 (1974) 332-333
126. Su H.T., Hsu R.R., Chen A.B., Wang Y.C., Hsiao W.S., Lai W.C., Lee L.C., Sato M., and Fukunishi H. Gigantic jets between a thundercloud and the ionosphere. Nature 423 (2003) 974-976
127. Svensmark H., and Friss-Christensen E. Variation of cosmic ray flux and global cloud coverage-a missing link in solar climate relation. J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys. 60 (1997) 667-973
128. Takeda M., and Maeda H. Three dimensional structure of ionospheric currents-1. Currents caused by diurnal tidal winds. J. Geophys. Res. 85 (1980) 6895-6899
129. Taranenko Y.N., Inan U.S., and Bell T.F. Interaction with the lower ionosphere of electromagnetic pulses from lightning, heating, attachment and ionization. Geophys. Res. Lett. 20 (1993) 1539-1542
130. Tinsley B.A. Correlations of atmospheric dynamics with solar-wind-induced changes of air-Earth current density into cloud tops. J. Geophys. Res. 101 (1996) 29701-29714
131. Tinsley B.A. Influence of the solar wind on the global electric circuit, and inferred effects on cloud microphysics, temperature, and dynamics of the troposphere. Space Sci. Rev. 94 (2000) 231-258
132. Tinsley B.A., and Heelis R.A. Correlations of atmospheric dynamics with solar activity. Evidence for a connection via the solar wind, atmospheric electricity, and cloud microphysics. J. Geophys. Res. 98 (1993) 10375-10384
133. Tinsley B.A., and Yu F. Atmospheric ionization and clouds as links between solar activity and climate. In: Pap J., et al. (Ed). Solar Variability and its Effects on the Earth's Atmospheric and Climate System (2003), American Geophysical Union Press, Washington, D.C. 19
134. Tinsley B.A., Zhou L., and Plemons A. Changes in scavenging of particles by droplets due to weak electrification in clouds. Atmos. Res. 79 (2006) 266-295
135. Tripathi, S.N., 2000. Removal of charged aerosols. Ph.D. Thesis. The University of Reading, UK.
136. Tripathi S.N., and Harrison R.G. Scavenging of electrified radioactive aerosols. Atmos. Environ. 35 33 (2001) 5817-5821
137. Tripathi S.N., and Harrison R.G. Enhancement of contact nucleation by scavenging of charged aerosol. Atmos. Res. 62 (2002) 57-70
138. Tsurutani B.T., and Gonzalez W.D. The efficiency of 'viscous interaction' between the solar wind and magnetosphere during intense northward IMF event. Grophys. Res. Lett. 22 (1995) 663-666
139. Turco R.P., Zhao L.X., and Yu F. A new source of tropospheric aerosol: Ion-ion recombination. Geophys. Res. Lett. 25 (1998) 635-638
140. Volland H. Electromagnetic coupling between lower and upper atmosphere. Phys. Scr., T 18 (1987) 289-297
141. Weiss L.A., Reiff P.H., Mosses J.J., and Moore B.D. Eur. Space Agency Spec. Publ., ESA-SP 335 (1992) 309
142. Wescott E.N., Stenback-Mielsen H.C., Sentman D.D., Heavner M.J., Moudry D.R., and Sabbas F.T.S. Triangulation of sprites, associated halos and their possible relation to causative lightning and micrometeors. J. Geophys. Res. 106 (2001) 10467-10478
143. Whipple F.J.W., and Scrase F.J. Point discharge in the electric field of the Earth. Geophys. Mem. (Lond.) VIII 68 (1936) 20
144. Wilcox J.M., Schrrer P.H., Svalgaard L., Roberts W.O., Olson R.H., and Jenne R.L. Influence of solar magnetic sector structure on terrestrial atmospheric vorticity. J. Atmos. Sci. 31 (1974) 581-591
145. Williams E.R. The Schumann Resonance: a global thermometer. Science 256 (1992) 1184-1187
146. Williams E.R. Global circuit response to seasonal variations in global surface air temperature. Mon. Weather Rev. 122 (1994) 1917-1929
147. Williams E.R. Lightning and climate: a review. Atmos. Res. 76 (2005) 272-287
148. Williams E.R., and Heckman S.J. The local diurnal variation of cloud electrification and the global diurnal variation of negative charge on the Earth. J. Geophys. Res. 98 (1993) 5221-5234
149. Williams E.R., Rothkin K., Stevenson D., and Boccippio D. Global lightning variations caused by changes in thunderstorm flash rate and by changes in the number of thunderstorms. J. Appl. Met. (TRMM Special Issue) 39 (2000) 2223-2248
150. Williams E.R., Mushtak V.C., Rosenfeld D., Goodman S.J., and Boccippio D.J. Thermodynamic conditions favorable to superlative thunderstorm up draft, mixed phase microphysics and lightning flash rate. Atmos. Res. 76 (2005) 288-306
151. Wood C.A. Unusual lightning. Weather 5 (1951) 230