Ductile extrusion in continental collision zones: Ambiguities in the definition of channel flow and its identification in ancient orogens

Geological Society Special Publication

Volumn 268, Issue , 2006, Pages 201-219

  Jones, R R ^a   Holdsworth, R E ^a   Hand, M ^b   Goscombe, B ^b,c  

^a DURHAM UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE   (Australia)

^c Northern Territory Geological Survey   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHANNEL FLOW; COLLISION ZONE; CONTINENTAL COLLISION; DUCTILE DEFORMATION; EXTRUSION; METAMORPHISM; OROGENY; SHEAR ZONE; STRAIN;

EID: 33847416958     PISSN: 03058719     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1144/GSL.SP.2006.268.01.09     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (131)

1. Alsdorf, D., Brown, L., Nelson, K. D., Makovsky, Y., Klemperer, S. & Zhao, W. 1998. Crustal deformation of the Lhasa terrane from Project INDEPTH deep seismic reflection profiles. Tectonics, 17, 501-519.
2. Argles, T. W. 2000. The evolution of the Main Mantle Thrust in the Western Syntaxis, Northern Pakistan. In: Khan, M. A., Treloar, P. J., Searle, M. P. & Jan, M. Q. (eds) Tectonics of the Nanga Parbat Syntaxis and the Western Himalaya. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 170, 101-122.
3. Beaumont, C., Jamieson, R. A., Nguyen, M. H. & Lee, B. 2001. Himalayan tectonics explained by extrusion of a low-viscosity crustal channel coupled to focused surface denudation. Nature, 414, 738-742.
4. Beaumont, C., Jamieson, R. A., Nguyen, M. H. & Medvedev, S. 2004. Crustal channel flows: 1. Numerical models with applications to the tectonics of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen, Journal of Geophysical Research, 109, B06406. DOI: 10.1029/2003JB002809.
5. Beaumont, C., Nguyen, M. H., Jamieson, R. A. & Ellis, S. 2006. Crustal flow modes in large hot orogens. In: Law, R. D., Searle, M. P. & Godin, L. (eds) Channel Flow, Ductile Extrusion and Exhumation in Continental Collision Zones. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 268, 91-145.
6. Bird, P. 1989. New finite element techniques for modeling deformation histories of continents with stratified temperature-dependent rheology. Journal of Geophysical Research, 94, 3967-3990.
7. Bird, P. 1991. Lateral extrusion of lower crust from under high topography, in the isostatic limit. Journal of Geophysical Research, 96, 10275-10286.
8. Bishop, M. P. & Shroder, J. F. 2000. Remote sensing and geomorphological assessment of topographic complexity and erosion dynamics in the Nanga Parbat massif. In: Khan, M. A., Treloar, P. J., Searle, M. P. & Jan, M. Q. (eds) Tectonics of the Nanga Parbat Syntaxis and the Western Himalaya. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 170, 181-200.
9. Blackwood, R. F. 1977. Geology of the east half of the Gambo (2D/16) map area and the northwest portion of the St. Brendan's (2C/13) map area, Newfoundland. Newfoundland Mineral Development Division, Report 77-5.
10. Blackwood, R. F. & Kennedy, M. J. 1975. The Dover Fault: western boundary of the Avalon Zone in northeastern Newfoundland. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 12, 320-325.
11. Block, L. & Royden, L. H. 1990. Core complex geometries and regional scale flow in the lower crust. Tectonics, 9, 557-567.
12. Bott, M. H. P. 1999. Modeling local crustal isostacy caused by ductile flow in the lower crust. Journal of Geophysical Research, 104, 20349-20359.
13. Brace, W. F. & Kohlstedt, D. L. 1980. Limits on lithospheric stress imposed by laboratory experiments. Journal of Geophysical Research, 85, 6248-6252.
14. Burchfiel, B. C. & Royden, L. H. 1985. North-south extension within the convergent Himalayan region. Geology, 13, 679-682.
15. Burchfiel, B. C., Chen, Z., Hodges, K. V., Liu, Y., Royden, L. H., Deng, C. & Xu, J. 1992. The South Tibetan Detachment System, Himalayan Orogen: Extension contemporaneous with and parallel to shortening in a collisional mountain belt. Geological Society of America, Special Paper, 269.
16. Burg, J.-P. & Podladchikov, Y. 2000. From buckling to asymmetric folding of the continental lithosphere: numerical modelling and application to the Himalayan syntaxes. In: Khan, M. A., Treloar, P. J., Searle, M. P. & Jan, M. Q. (eds) Tectonics of the Nanga Parbat Syntaxis and the Western Himalaya. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 170, 219-236.
17. Burg, J.-P., Brunel, M., Gapais, D., Chen, G. M. & Lui, G. H. 1984. Deformation of leucogranites of the crystalline main central thrust sheet in southern Tibet (China). Journal of Structural Geology, 6, 535-542.
18. Butler, R. W. H. 2000. Structural evolution on the western margin of the Nanga Parbat massif, Pakistan Himalayas: insights from the Raikhot-Liachar area. In: Khan, M. A., Treloar, P. J., Searle, M. P. & Jan, M. Q. (eds) Tectonics of the Nanga Parbat Syntaxis and the Western Himalaya. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 170, 51-75.
19. Butler, R. W. H. & Prior, D. J. 1988a. Tectonic controls on the uplift of Nanga Parbat, Pakistan Himalayas. Nature, 333, 247-250.
20. Butler, R. W. H. & Prior, D. J. 1988b. Anatomy of a continental subduction zone: the Main Mantle Thrust in northern Pakistan. Geologisches Rundschau, 77, 239-255.
21. Butler, R. W. H., Prior, D. J. & Knipe, R. J. 1989. Neotectonics of the Nanga Parbat syntaxis, Pakistan, and crustal stacking in the northwest Himalayas. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 94, 329-343.
22. Butler, R. W. H., George, M., Harris, N. B. W., Jones, C., Prior, D. J., Treloar, P. J. & Wheeler, J. 1992. Geology of the northern part of the Nanga Parbat massif, northern Pakistan, and its implications for Himalayan tectonics. Journal of the Geological Society, London, 149, 557-567.
23. Butler, R. W. H., Harris, N. B. W. & Whittington, A. G. 1997. Interactions between deformation, magmatism and hydrothermal activity during active crustal thickening: a field example from Nanga Parbat, Pakistan Himalayas. Mineralogical Magazine, 61, 37-52.
24. Butler, R. W. H., Wheeler, J., Treloar, P. J. & Jones, C. 2000. Geological structure of the southern part of the Nanga Parbat massif, Pakistan Himalayas, and its tectonic implications. In: Khan, M. A., Treloar, P. J., Searle, M. P. & Jan, M. Q. (eds) Tectonics of the Nanga Parbat Syntaxis and the Western Himalaya. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 170, 123-136.
25. Butler, R. W. H., Casey, M., Lloyd, G. E., Bond, C. E., McDade, P., Shipton, Z. K. & Jones, R. 2002. Vertical stretching and crustal thickening at Nanga Parbat, Pakistan Himalaya: a model for distributed continental deformation during mountain building. Tectonics, 21, 1027. DOI: 10.1029/2001TC901022.
26. Carosi, R., Montomoli, C., Rubatto, D. & Visona, D. 2006. Normal-sense shear zones in the core of the Higher-Himalayan Crystallines (Bhutan Himalayas): evidence for extrusion? In: Law, R. D., Searle, M. P. & Godin, L. (eds) Channel Flow, Ductile Extrusion and Exhumation in Continental Collision Zones. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 268, 425-444.
27. Chen, W.-P. & Molnar, P. 1983. Focal depths of intracontinental and intraplate earthquakes and their implications for the thermal and mechanical properties of the lithosphere. Journal of Geophysical Research, 88, 4183-4214.
28. Clark, M. K. & Royden, L. H. 2000. Topographic ooze: Building the eastern margin of Tibet by lower crustal flow. Geology, 28, 703-706.
29. Coward, M. P. 1983. Thrust tectonics, thin skinned or thick skinned, and the continuation of thrusts to deep in the crust. Journal of Structural Geology, 5, 113-123.
30. Coward, M. P. 1985. A section through the Nanga Parbat syntaxis, Indus valley, Kohistan. University of Peshawar Geological Bulletin, 18, 147-152.
31. Coward, M. P., Butler, R. W.H., Chambers, A. F. et al. 1988. Folding and imbrication of the Indian crust during Himalayan collision. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, A326, 89-116.
32. de Paola, N., Holdsworth, R. E. & McCaffrey, K. J. W. 2005. The influence of lithology and pre-existing structures on reservoir-scale faulting patterns in transtensional rift zones. Journal of the Geological Society, London, 162, 471-480.
33. Dewey, J. F., Hempton, M. R., Kidd, W. S. F., Saroglu, F. & Sengor, A. M. C. 1986. Shortening of continental lithosphere: the neotectonics of Eastern Anatolia - a young collision zone. In: Coward, M. P. & Ries, A. C. (eds) Collision Tectonics. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 19, 3-36.
34. Dewey, J. F., Holdsworth, R. E. & Strachan, R. A. 1998. Transpression and transtension zones. In: Holdsworth, R. E., Strachan, R. A. & Dewey, J. F. (eds) Continental Transpressional and Transtensional Tectonics. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 135, 1-14.
35. Dias, R. & Ribeiro, A. 1994. Constriction in a transpressive regime: an example in the Iberian branch of the Ibero-Armorican arc. Journal of Structural Geology, 16, 1543-1554.
36. D'Lemos, R. S., Schofield, D. I., Holdsworth, R. E. & King, T. R. 1997. Deep crustal and local rheological controls on the siting and reactivation of fault and shear zones, northeastern Newfoundland. Journal of the Geological Society, London, 154, 117-121.
37. Edwards, M. A., Kidd, W. S. F., Li, J., Yue, Y., & Clark, M. 1996. Multi-stage development of the southern Tibet detachment system near Khula Kangri. New data from Gonto La. Tectonophysics, 260, 1-19.
38. Edwards, M. A., Kidd, W. S. F., Khan, M. A. & Schneider, D. A. 2000. Tectonics of the SW Margin of the Nanga-Parbat Haramosh Massif. In: Khan, M. A., Treloar, P. J., Searle, M. P. & Jan, M. Q. (eds) Tectonics of the Nanga Parbat Syntaxis and the Western Himalaya. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 170, 77-100.
39. Ellis, S., Beaumont, C., Jamieson, R. & Quinlan, G. 1998. Continental collision including a weak zone, the vise model and its application to the Newfoundland Appalachians. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 35, 1323-1346.
40. England, P. C. & Holland, T. J. B. 1979. Archimedes and the Tauern eclogites: The role of buoyancy in the preservation of exotic eclogite blocks. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 44, 287-294.
41. Fossen, H. & Tikoff, B. 1998. Extended models of transpression and transtension, and application to tectonic settings. In: Holdsworth, R. E., Strachan, R. A. & Dewey, J. F. (eds) Continental Transpressional and Transtensional Tectonics. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 135, 15-33.
42. Galy, A., France-Lanord, C. & Derry, L. A. 1996. The Late Oligocene-Early Miocene Himalayan belt: Constraints deduced from isotopic compositions of Early Miocene turbidites in the Bengal Fan. Tectonophysics, 260, 109-118.
43. Gansser, A. 1964. Geology of the Himalaya. Wiley, London.
44. Goetze, C. & Evans, B. 1979. Stress and temperature in the bending lithosphere as constrained by experimental rock mechanics. Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, 59, 463-478.
45. Goscombe, B. D., Hand, M. & Gray, D. 2003a. Structure of the Kaoko Belt, Namibia: progressive evolution of a classic transpressional orogen. Journal of Structural Geology, 25, 1049-1081.
46. Goscombe, B. D., Hand, M., Gray, D. & Mawby, J. 2003b. The metamorphic architecture of a transpressional orogen: the Kaoko Belt, Namibia. Journal of Petrology, 44, 676-711.
47. Goscombe, B., Gray, D. & Hand, M. 2005. Extrusional tectonics in the core of a transpressional orogen; the Kaoko Belt, Namibia. Journal of Petrology, 46. DOI: 10.1093/petrology/egi014.
48. Grasemann, B., Fritz, H. & Vannay, J. C. 1999. Quantitative kinematic flow analysis from the Main Central Thrust Zone (NW-Himalaya, India); implications for a decelerating strain path and the extrusion of orogenic wedges. Journal of Structural Geology, 21, 837-853.
49. Grocott, J., McCaffrey, K. J. W., Taylor, G. K. & Tikoff, B. (eds) 2004. Vertical Coupling and Decoupling in the Lithosphere. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 227.
50. Grujic, D., Casey, M., Davidson, C., Hollister, L. S., Kündig, R., Pavlis, T. & Schmid, S. 1996. Ductile extrusion of the Higher Himalayan Crystalline in Bhutan: evidence from quartz microfabrics. Tectonophysics, 260, 21-43.
51. Grujic, D., Hollister, L. S. & Parrish, R. R. 2002. Himalayan metamorphic sequence as an orogenic channel: Insight from Bhutan. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 198, 177-191.
52. Hanmer, S. 1981. Tectonic significance of the north-eastern Gander zone, Newfoundland: an Acadian ductile shear zone. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 18, 120-135.
53. Harrison, T. M., Grove, M., McKeegan, K. D., Coath, C. D., Lovera, O. & Le Fort, P. 1999. Origin and episodic emplacement of the Manaslu Intrusive Complex, Central Himalaya. Journal of Petrology, 40, 3-19.
54. Hauck, M. L., Nelson, K. D., Brown, L. D., Zhao, W. & Ross, A. R. 1998. Crustal structure of the Himalyan orogen at ∼90° east longitude from Project INDEPTH deep reflection profiles. Tectonics, 17, 481-500.
55. Hodges, K. V., Hubbard, M. & Silverberg, D. S. 1988. Metamorphic constraints on the thermal evolution of central Himalayan orogeny. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London, A326, 257-280.
56. Hodges, K. V., Parrish, R. R., Housch, T. B., Lux, D. R., Burchfiel, B. C., Royden, L. H. & Chen, Z. 1992. Simultaneous Miocene extension and shortening in the Himalayan orogen. Science, 258, 1466-1479.
57. Hodges, K. V., Burchfiel, B. C., Royden, L. H., Chen, Z. & Liu, Y. 1993. The metamorphic signature of contemporaneous extension and shortening in the central Himalayan orogen: data from Nyalam transect, southern Tibet. Journal of Metamorphic Geology, 11, 721-737.
58. Holdsworth, R. E. 1994. Structural evolution of the Gander-Avalon terrane boundary: a reactivated transpression zone in the NE Newfoundland Appalachians. Journal of the Geological Society, London, 151, 629-646.
59. Holdsworth, R. E., Strachan, R. A. & Dewey, J. F. (eds) 1998. Continental Transpressional and Transtensional Tectonics. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 135.
60. 39Ar age constraints on deformation and metamorphism in the Main Central Thrust zone and Tibetan Slab, eastern Nepal Himalaya. Tectonics, 8, 865-880.
61. Jackson, J. A. 2002. Strength of the continental lithosphere: time to abandon the jelly sandwich? GSA Today, 12, 4-10.
62. Jamieson, R. A., Beaumont, C., Nguyen, M. H. & Lee, B. 2002. Interaction of metamorphism, deformation and exhumation in large convergent orogens. Journal of Metamorphic Geology, 20, 9-24.
63. Jamieson, R. A., Beaumont, C., Medvedev, S. & Nguyen, M. H. 2004. Crustal channel flows: 2. Numerical models with implications for metamorphism in the Himalayan - Tibetan orogen, Journal of Geophysical Research, 109, B06407. DOI: 10.1029/2003JB002811.
64. Jamieson, R. A., Beumont, T, C., Nguyen M. H. & Grujic, D. 2006. Provenance of the Greater Himalayan Sequence and associated rocks: predictions of channel flow models. In: Law, R. D., Searle, M. P. & Godin, L. (eds) Channel Flow, Ductile Extrusion and Exhumation in Continental Collision Zones. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 268, 165-182.
65. Jessup, M. J., Law, R. D., Searle, M. P. & Hubarrd, M. S. 2006. Structural evolution and vorticity of flow during extrusion and exhumation of the greater Himalayan Slab, Mount Everest Massif, Tibet/ Nepal: implications for orogenscale flow partitioning. In: Law, R. D., Searle, M. P. & Godin, L. (eds) Channel Flow, Ductile Extrusion and Exhumation in Continental Collision Zones. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 268, 379-413.
66. Jones, R. R. & Tanner, P. W. G. 1995. Strain partitioning in transpression zones. Journal of Structural Geology, 17, 793-802.
67. Jones, R. R., Holdsworth, R. E. & Bailey, W. 1997. Lateral extrusion in transpression zones: the importance of boundary conditions. Journal of Structural Geology, 19, 1201-1217.
68. Jones, R. R., Holdsworth, R. E., Clegg, P., Tavarnelli, E. & McCaffrey, K. J. W. 2004. Inclined Transpression. Journal of Structural Geology, 26, 1531-1548.
69. Jones, R. R., Holdsworth, R. E., McCaffrey, K. J. W., Clegg, P. & Tavarnelli, E. 2005. Scale dependence, strain compatibility and heterogeneity of three-dimensional deformation during mountain building: a discussion. Journal of Structural Geology, 27, 1190-1204.
70. Kennedy, M. J. & McGonigal, M. H. 1972. The Gander Lake and Davidsville groups of northeastern Newfoundland: new data and geotectonic implications. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 9, 452-459.
71. Khan, M. A., Treloar, P. J., Searle, M. P. & Jan, M. Q. (eds) 2000. Tectonics of the Nanga Parbat Syntaxis and the Western Himalaya. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 170.
72. King, T. R. 1997. P-T-t-d evolution paths within the Gander Zone, NE Newfoundland PhD thesis, Oxford Brookes University.
73. Klepeis, K. A., Clarke, G. L., Gehrels, G. & Vervoort, J. 2004. Processes controlling vertical coupling and decoupling between the upper and lower crust of orogens: results from Fiordland, New Zealand. Journal of Structural Geology, 26, 765-791.
74. Koons, P. O., Zeitler, P. K., Chamberlain, C. P., Craw, D. & Meltzer, A. S. 2002. Mechanical links between erosion and metamorphism in Nanga Parbat, Pakistan Himalaya. American Journal of Science, 302, 749-773.
75. Kusznir, N. & Matthews, D. H. 1988. Deep seismic reflections and the deformational mechanics of the continental lithosphere. In: Menzies, M. A. & Cox, K. G. (eds) Oceanic and Continental Lithosphere: Similarities and Differences. Journal of Petrology, Special Lithosphere Issue, 63-87.
76. Law, R. D., Searle, M. P. & Simpson, R. L. 2004. Strain, deformation temperatures and vorticity of flow at the top of the Greater Himalayan Slab, Everest Massif, Tibet. Journal of the Geological Society, London, 161, 305-320.
77. Maggi, A., Jackson, J. A., McKenzie, D. & Priestley, K. 2000. Earthquake focal depths, effective elastic thickness, and the strength of the continental lithosphere. Geology, 28, 495-498.
78. Mancktelow, N. S. 1995. Nonlithostatic pressure during sediment subduction and the development and exhumation of high pressure metamorphic rocks. Journal of Geophysical Research, 100, 571-583.
79. Meltzer, A. & Christensen, N. 2001. Nanga Parbat crustal anisotropy: Implications for interpretation of crustal velocity structure and shear-wave splitting. Geophysical Research Letters, 28, 2129-2132.
80. Meltzer, A., Sarker, G., Beaudoin, B., Seeber, L. & Armbruster, J. 2001. Seismic characterization of an active metamorphic massif, Nanga Parbat, Pakistan Himalaya. Geology, 29, 651-654.
81. Molnar, P. 1992. Brace-Goetze strength profiles, the partitioning of strike-slip and thrust faulting at zones of oblique convergence, and the stress-heat flow paradox of the San Andreas Fault. In: Evans, B. & Wong, T.-F. (eds) Fault Mechanics and Transport Properties of Rocks. Academic Press, London, 435-459.
82. Nelson, K. D., Brown, L. D., Hauck, M. L. et al. 1995. Initial results of INDEPTH II (1994) deep crustal profiling in Southern Tibet. In: Spencer, D. A., Burg, J. P. & Spencer-Cervato, C. (eds) 10th Himalaya Karakoram Tibet Workshop, Ascona. Abs. Vol. Mitteilungen aus dem Geologischen Institut der Eidgenössischen Technischen Hochschule und der Universität Zürich, N. F., 298, 45-47.
83. Nelson, K. D., Zhao, W., Brown, L. D. et al. 1996. Partially molten middle crust beneath southern Tibet: a synthesis of Project INDEPTH results. Science, 274, 1684-1688.
84. O'Brien, S. J., Wardle, R. J. & King, A. F. 1983. The Avalon Zone: A Pan-African terrane in the Appalachian Orogen of Canada. Geological Journal, 18, 195-222.
85. O'Neill, R.P. 1991. Geology of the Weir's Pond area, Newfoundland. Newfoundland Department of Mines and Energy, Mineral Development Division, Report 91-3.
86. Oldow, J. S., Bally, A. W. & Avé Lallement, H. G. 1990. Transpression, orogenic float, and lithospheric balance. Geology, 18, 991-994.
87. Passchier, C. W. 1986. Flow in natural shear zones - the consequences of spinning flow regimes. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 77, 70-80.
88. Passchier, C. W. 1987. Stable positions of rigid objects in non-coaxial flow - a study in vorticity analysis. Journal of Structural Geology, 9, 679-690.
89. Pêcher, A. & Le Fort, P. 1999. Late Miocene evolution of the Karakorum-Nanga Parbat contact zone (northern Pakistan). In: Macfarlane, A., Surkhabi, R. B. & Quade, J. (eds) Himalaya and Tibet: Mountain Roots to Mountain Tops. Geological Society of America Special Paper, 328, 145-158.
90. Platt, J. P. & Behrmann, J. H. 1986. Structures and fabrics in a crustal scale shear zone, Betic Cordilleras, S. E. Spain. Journal of Structural Geology, 8, 15-34.
91. Ramsay, J. G. & Huber, M. I. 1987. The Techniques of Modern Structural Geology. Volume 2: Folds and Fractures. Academic Press, London.
92. Reche, J., Martinez, F. J. & Arboleya, M. L. 1998. Low- to medium-pressure Variscan metamorphism in Galicia (NW Spain); evolution of a kyanite-bearing synform and associated bounding antiformal domains. In: Treloar, P. J. & O'Brien, P. J. (eds) What Drives Metamorphism and Metamorphic Reactions? Geological Society, London, Special Publications 138, 61-79.
93. Robin, P.-Y. F. & Cruden, A. R. 1994. Strain and vorticity patterns in ideally ductile transpression zones. Journal of Structural Geology, 16, 447-466.
94. Royden, L. H. 1996. Coupling and decoupling of crust and mantle in convergent orogens: implications for strain partitioning in the crust. Journal of Geophysical Research, 101, 17679-17705.
95. Sanderson, D. J. 1982. Models of strain variation in nappes and thrust sheets: a review. Tectonophysics, 88, 201-233.
96. Sanderson, D. J. & Marchini, W. R. D. 1984. Transpression. Journal of Structural Geology, 6, 449-458.
97. Schneider, D. A., Edwards, M. A., Zeitler, P. K. & Coath, C. 1999. Mazeno Pass Pluton and Jutial Granite, NW Pakistan: age and implications for granite entrapment mechanisms of two granites in the Himalaya. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 136, 273-284.
98. Searle, M. P. 1999. Emplacement of Himalayan leucogranites by magma injection along giant sill complexes: examples from the Cho Oyu, Gyachung Kang and Everest leucogranites (Nepal Himalaya). Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 17, 773-783.
99. Searle, M. P. & Kkan, M. A. (eds) 1996. Geological Map of North Pakistan. (Scale 1:650,000, 1 sheet). Department of Earth Sciences, Oxford University.
100. Searle, M. P. & Rex, A. J. 1989. Thermal model for the Zanskar Himalaya. Journal of Metamorphic Geology, 7, 127-134.
101. Searle, M. P., Metcalfe, R. P., Rex, A. J. & Norry, M. J. 1993. Field relations, petrogenesis and emplacement of the Bhagirathi leucogranite, Garhwal Himalaya. In: Treloar, P. J. & Searle, M. P. (eds) Himalayan Tectonics. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 74, 429-444.
102. Searle, M. P., Simpson, R. R., Law, R. D., Parrish, R. R. & Waters, D. J. 2003. The structural geometry, metamorphic and magmatic evolution of the Everest massif, High Himalaya of Nepal-South Tibet. Journal of the Geological Society, London, 160, 344-366.
103. Seeber, L. & Pêcher, A. 1998. Strain partitioning along the Himalayan arc and the Nanga Parbat antiform. Geology, 26, 791-194.
104. Simpson, C. & de Paor, D. 1993. Strain and kinematic analysis in general shear zones. Journal of Structural Geology, 15, 1-20.
105. Soper, N. J., Strachan, R. A., Holdsworth, R. E., Gayer, R. A. & Greiling, R. O. 1992. Sinistral transpression and the Silurian closure of Iapetus. Journal of the Geological Society, London, 149, 871-880.
106. Tahirkheli, R. A. K. & Jan, M. Q. 1979. Geology of Kohistan, Karakoram Himalaya, northern Pakistan. University of Peshawar Geological Bulletin, 11, 1-187.
107. Teyssier, C., Tikoff, B. & Markley, M. 1995. Oblique plate motion and continental tectonics. Geology, 23, 447-450.
108. Teyssier, C., Tikoff, B. & Weber, J. 2002. Attachment between brittle and ductile crust at wrenching plate boundaries. European Geophysical Union, Stephan Mueller Special Publication Series, 1, 75-91.
109. Thompson, A. B., Schulmann, K. & Jezek, J. 1997a. Extrusion tectonics and elevation of lower crustal metamorphic rocks in convergent orogens. Geology, 25, 491-494.
110. Thompson, A. B., Schulmann, K. & Jezek, J. 1997b. Thermal evolution and exhumation in obliquely convergent (transpressive) orogens. Tectonophysics, 280, 171-184.
111. Tikoff, B. & Fossen, H. 1993. Simultaneous pure and simple shear: the unifying deformation matrix. Tectonophysics, 217, 267-283.
112. Tikoff, B., Teyssier, C. & Waters, S. 2002. Clutch tectonics and the partial attachment of lithosphere layers. European Geophysical Society, Stephen Mueller Special Publication Series, 1, 93-117.
113. Treloar, P. J. & Coward, M. P. 1991. Plate motion and shape: constraints on the geometry of the Himalayan orogen. Tectonophysics, 191, 189-198.
114. Treloar, P. J., Rex, D. C., Guise, P. G. et al. 1989. K-Ar and Ar-Ar geochronology of the Himalayan collision in NW Pakistan: constraints on the timing of suturing, deformation, metamorphism, and uplift. Tectonics, 8, 881-909.
115. Treloar, P. J., Rex, D. C., Guise, P. G., Wheeler, J. & Hurford, A. J. 2000. Geochronological constraints on the evolution of the Nanga Parbat syntaxis, Pakistan Himalaya. In: Khan, M. A., Treloar, P. J., Searle, M. P. & Jan, M. Q. (eds) Tectonics of the Nanga Parbat Syntaxis and the Western Himalaya. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 170, 137-162.
116. Turcotte, D. L. & Schubert, G. 1982. Geodynamics: Applications of Continuum Physics to Geological Problems. Wiley, New York.
117. Turcotte, D. L. & Schubert, G. 2002. Geodynamics (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press.
118. Vannay, J.-C. & Grasemann, B. 2001. Himalayan inverted metamorphism and syn-convergence extension as a consequence of a general shear extrusion. Geological Magazine, 138, 253-276.
119. Walker, J. D., Martin, M. W., Bowring, S. A., Searle, M. P., Waters, D. J. & Hodges, K. V. 1999. Metamorphism, melting and extension: Age constraints from the High Himalayan slab of Southeastern Zanskar and Northwestern Lahoul. Journal of Geology, 107, 473-495.
120. Wheeler, J., Treloar, P. J. & Potts, G. J. 1995. Structural and metamorphic evolution of the Nanga Parbat syntaxis, Pakistan Himalayas, on the Indus gorge transect: the importance of early events. Geological Journal, 30, 349-371.
121. Whittington, A. G. 1996. Exhumation overrated at Nanga Parbat, northern Pakistan. Tectonophysics, 206, 215-226.
122. Whittington, A. G., Harris, N. B. W. & Butler, R. W. H. 1999. Contrasting anatectic styles at Nanga Parbat, northern Pakistan. In: Macfarlane, A., Surkhabi, R. B. & Quade, J. (eds) Himalaya and Tibet: Mountain Roots to Mountain Tops. Geological Society of America Special Paper, 328, 129-144.
123. Williams, H., Colman-Sadd, S. P. & Swinden, H. S. 1988. Tectonic-stratigraphic subdivisions of central Newfoundland. Current Research, Part B, Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 88-1B, 91-98.
124. Wu, C., Nelson, K. D., Wortman, G. et al. 1998. Yadong cross-structure and South Tibetan Detachment in the east central Himalaya (89°-90°E). Tectonics, 17, 28-45.
125. Xypolias, P. & Doutsos, T. 2000. Kinematics of rock flow in a crustal-scale shear zone: implication for the orogenic evolution of the southwestern Hellenides. Geological Magazine, 137, 81-96.
126. Xypolias, P. & Kokkalas, S. 2006 Heterogeneous ductile deformation along a mid-crustal extruding shear zone: an example from the External Hellenides (Greece). In: Law, R. D., Searle, M. P. & Godin, L. (eds) Channel Flow, Ductile Extrusion and Exhumation in Continental Collision Zones. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 268, 497-516.
127. Xypolias, P. & Koukouvelas, I. K. 2001. Kinematic vorticity and strain rates associated with ductile extrusion in the Chelmos Shear Zone (External Hellenides, Greece). Tectonophysics, 338, 59-77.
128. Zeitler, P. K. 1985. Cooling history of the northwestern Himalaya, Pakistan. Tectonics, 4, 127-151.
129. Zeitler, P. K. & Chamberlain, C. P. 1991. Petrogenetic and tectonic significance of young leucogranites from the northwestern Himalaya, Pakistan. Tectonics, 10, 729-741.
130. Zeitler, P. K., Chamberlain, C. P. & Smith, H. A. 1993. Synchronous anatexis, metamorphism, and rapid denudation at Nanga Parbat, Pakistan Himalaya. Geology, 21, 347-350.
131. Zeitler, P. K., Koons, P. O., Bishop, M. P. et al. 2001. Crustal reworking at Nanga Parbat, Pakistan: metamorphic consequences of thermal - mechanical coupling facilitated by erosion. Tectonics, 20, 712-728.