Legislative mandates for use of active surveillance cultures to screen for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-resistant enterococci: Position statement from the Joint SHEA and APIC Task Force

American Journal of Infection Control

Volumn 35, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 73-85

  Weber, Stephen G ^a   Huang, Susan S ^b   Oriola, Shannon ^c   Huskins, W Charles ^d   Noskin, Gary A ^e   Harriman, Kathleen ^f   Olmsted, Russell N ^g   Bonten, Marc ^h   Lundstrom, Tammy ⁱ   Climo, Michael W ^j   Roghmann, Mary Claire ^k   Murphy, Cathryn L ^l   Karchmer, Tobi B ^m  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

^b BRIGHAM AND WOMEN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

^c Mayo Clinic ^*  (United States)

^d MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

^e NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^f Minnesota State Health Department   (United States)

^g Saint Joseph Mercy Health System   (United States)

^h UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER UTRECHT   (Netherlands)

ⁱ WAYNE STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^j VIRGINIA COMMONWEALTH UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^k UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^l Infection Control Plus   (Australia)

^m WAKE FOREST SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

more..

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

METICILLIN; VANCOMYCIN;

ARTICLE; BACTERIUM CULTURE; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; HEALTH CARE ORGANIZATION; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HOSPITAL PATIENT; INFECTION CONTROL; INFECTION PREVENTION; LEGAL ASPECT; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; VANCOMYCIN RESISTANT ENTEROCOCCUS;

ADVISORY COMMITTEES; CULTURE MEDIA; ENTEROCOCCUS; GRAM-POSITIVE BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; HOSPITALIZATION; HUMANS; ILLINOIS; INFECTION CONTROL; MARYLAND; METHICILLIN RESISTANCE; POPULATION SURVEILLANCE; SOCIETIES, MEDICAL; SOCIETIES, SCIENTIFIC; STAPHYLOCOCCAL INFECTIONS; STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; VANCOMYCIN RESISTANCE;

EID: 33847258216     PISSN: 01966553     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2007.01.001     Document Type: Article

References (110)

1. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System Report, data summary from January 1992 through June 2004, issued October 2004. Am J Infect Control 32 (2004) 470-485
2. Obritsch M.D., Fish D.N., MacLaren R., and Jung R. National surveillance of antimicrobial resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates obtained from intensive care unit patients from 1993 to 2002. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 48 (2004) 4606-4610
3. Muto C.A., Jernigan J.A., Ostrowsky B.E., et al. SHEA guideline for preventing nosocomial transmission of multidrug-resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 24 (2003) 362-386
4. Siegel JD, Rhinehart E, Jackson M, Chiarello L, the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Management of multidrug-resistant organisms in healthcare settings, 2006. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/. Accessed November 13, 2006.
5. Illinois General Assembly. Bill Status of SB2771, 94th General Assembly. Available at: http://www.ilga.gov/legislation/BillStatus.asp?GA=94&DocTypeID=SB &DocNum=2771&GAID=8&SessionID=50&. Accessed January 10, 2007.
6. Illinois General Assembly. Bill Status of SB3087, 94th General Assembly. Available at: http://www.ilga.gov/legislation/billstatus.asp?DocNum=3087&GAID=8 &GA=94&DocTypeID=SB&LegID=24218&S. Accessed January 10, 2007.
7. Maryland General Assembly. Hospitals and nursing facilities-health care-associated infections prevention and control program. Available at: http://mlis.state.md.us/2006rs/billfile/hb0966.htm. Accessed January 10, 2007.
8. Navon-Venezia S., Ben-Ami R., and Carmeli Y. Update on Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii infections in the healthcare setting. Curr Opin Infect Dis 18 (2005) 306-313
9. Blot S.I., Depuydt P., Annemans L., et al. Clinical and economic outcomes in critically ill patients with nosocomial catheter-related bloodstream infections. Clin Infect Dis 41 (2005) 1591-1598
10. Zahar J.R., Clec'h C., Tafflet M., et al. Is methicillin resistance associated with a worse prognosis in Staphylococcus aureus ventilator-associated pneumonia?. Clin Infect Dis 41 (2005) 1224-1231
11. Cosgrove S.E., Sakoulas G., Perencevich E.N., Schwaber M.J., Karchmer A.W., and Carmeli Y. Comparison of mortality associated with methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 36 (2003) 53-59
12. DiazGranados C.A., Zimmer S.M., Klein M., and Jernigan J.A. Comparison of mortality associated with vancomycin-resistant and vancomycin-susceptible enterococcal bloodstream infections: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 41 (2005) 327-333
13. Carmeli Y., Eliopoulos G., Mozaffari E., and Samore M. Health and economic outcomes of vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Arch Intern Med 162 (2002) 2223-2228
14. Engemann J.J., Carmeli Y., Cosgrove S.E., et al. Adverse clinical and economic outcomes attributable to methicillin resistance among patients with Staphylococcus aureus surgical site infection. Clin Infect Dis 36 (2003) 592-598
15. Kenner J., O'Connor T., Piantanida N., et al. Rates of carriage of methicillin-resistant and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus in an outpatient population. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 24 (2003) 439-444
16. Wendt C., Krause C., Xander L.U., Loffler D., and Floss H. Prevalence of colonization with vancomycin-resistant enterococci in various population groups in Berlin, Germany. J Hosp Infect 42 (1999) 193-200
17. van den Braak N., Ott A., van Belkum A., et al. Prevalence and determinants of fecal colonization with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus in hospitalized patients in The Netherlands. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 21 (2000) 520-524
18. Coello R., Glynn J.R., Gaspar C., Picazo J.J., and Fereres J. Risk factors for developing clinical infection with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) amongst hospital patients initially only colonized with MRSA. J Hosp Infect 37 (1997) 39-46
19. Pujol M., Pena C., Pallares R., Ayats J., Ariza J., and Gudiol F. Risk factors for nosocomial bacteremia due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 13 (1994) 96-102
20. Huang S.S., and Platt R. Risk of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection after previous infection or colonization. Clin Infect Dis 36 (2003) 281-285
21. Henning K.J., Delencastre H., Eagan J., et al. Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium on a pediatric oncology ward: duration of stool shedding and incidence of clinical infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J 15 (1996) 848-854
22. Zirakzadeh A., and Patel R. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci: colonization, infection, detection, and treatment. Mayo Clin Proc 81 (2006) 529-536
23. Yeh K.M., Siu L.K., Chang J.C., and Chang F.Y. Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) carriage and infection in intensive care units. Microb Drug Resist 10 (2004) 177-183
24. Bradley S.F., Terpenning M.S., Ramsey M.A., et al. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: colonization and infection in a long-term care facility. Ann Intern Med 115 (1991) 417-422
25. Mest D.R., Wong D.H., Shimoda K.J., Mulligan M.E., and Wilson S.E. Nasal colonization with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus on admission to the surgical intensive care unit increases the risk of infection. Anesth Analg 78 (1994) 644-650
26. Gordin F.M., Schultz M.E., Huber R.A., and Gill J.A. Reduction in nosocomial transmission of drug-resistant bacteria after introduction of an alcohol-based handrub. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 26 (2005) 650-653
27. Pittet D., Hugonnet S., Harbarth S., et al. Effectiveness of a hospital-wide programme to improve compliance with hand hygiene. Infection Control Programme. Lancet 356 (2000) 1307-1312
28. Johnson P.D., Martin R., Burrell L.J., et al. Efficacy of an alcohol/chlorhexidine hand hygiene program in a hospital with high rates of nosocomial methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection. Med J Aust 183 (2005) 509-514
29. Rosenthal V.D., Guzman S., and Safdar N. Reduction in nosocomial infection with improved hand hygiene in intensive care units of a tertiary care hospital in Argentina. Am J Infect Control 33 (2005) 392-397
30. Ng P.C., Wong H.L., Lyon D.J., et al. Combined use of alcohol hand rub and gloves reduces the incidence of late onset infection in very low birthweight infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 89 (2004) F336-F340
31. Dancer S.J., Coyne M., Speekenbrink A., Samavedam S., Kennedy J., and Wallace P.G. MRSA acquisition in an intensive care unit. Am J Infect Control 34 (2006) 10-17
32. Tenorio A.R., Badri S.M., Sahgal N.B., et al. Effectiveness of gloves in the prevention of hand carriage of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus species by health care workers after patient care. Clin Infect Dis 32 (2001) 826-829
33. Moran G.J., Krishnadasan A., Gorwitz R.J., et al. Methicillin-resistant S aureus infections among patients in the emergency department. N Engl J Med 355 (2006) 666-674
34. Lucet J.C., Chevret S., Durand-Zaleski I., Chastang C., and Regnier B. Prevalence and risk factors for carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus at admission to the intensive care unit: results of a multicenter study. Arch Intern Med 163 (2003) 181-188
35. Salgado C.D., and Farr B.M. What proportion of hospital patients colonized with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus are identified by clinical microbiological cultures?. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 27 (2006) 116-121
36. Calfee D.P., Giannetta E.T., Durbin L.J., Germanson T.P., and Farr B.M. Control of endemic vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus among inpatients at a university hospital. Clin Infect Dis 37 (2003) 326-332
37. Mascini E.M., Troelstra A., Beitsma M., et al. Genotyping and preemptive isolation to control an outbreak of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Clin Infect Dis 42 (2006) 739-746
38. Puzniak L.A., Leet T., Mayfield J., Kollef M., and Mundy L.M. To gown or not to gown: the effect on acquisition of vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Clin Infect Dis 35 (2002) 18-25
39. Jernigan J.A., Titus M.G., Groschel D.H., Getchell-White S., and Farr B.M. Effectiveness of contact isolation during a hospital outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Am J Epidemiol 143 (1996) 496-504
40. Farr B.M. Prevention and control of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. Curr Opin Infect Dis 17 (2004) 317-322
41. Montecalvo M.A., Horowitz H., Gedris C., et al. Outbreak of vancomycin-, ampicillin-, and aminoglycoside-resistant Enterococcus faecium bacteremia in an adult oncology unit. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 38 (1994) 1363-1367
42. Livornese Jr. L.L., Dias S., Samel C., et al. Hospital-acquired infection with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium transmitted by electronic thermometers. Ann Intern Med 117 (1992) 112-116
43. Karanfil L.V., Murphy M., Josephson A., et al. A cluster of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium in an intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 13 (1992) 195-200
44. Boyce J.M., Mermel L.A., Zervos M.J., et al. Controlling vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 16 (1995) 634-637
45. Armstrong-Evans M., Litt M., McArthur M.A., et al. Control of transmission of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium in a long-term-care facility. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 20 (1999) 312-317
46. Malik R.K., Montecalvo M.A., Reale M.R., et al. Epidemiology and control of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in a regional neonatal intensive care unit. Pediatr Infect Dis J 18 (1999) 352-356
47. Byers K.E., Anglim A.M., Anneski C.J., et al. A hospital epidemic of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus: risk factors and control. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 22 (2001) 140-147
48. Boyce J.M., Opal S.M., Chow J.W., et al. Outbreak of multidrug-resistant Enterococcus faecium with transferable vanB class vancomycin resistance. J Clin Microbiol 32 (1994) 1148-1153
49. Singh N., Leger M.M., Campbell J., Short B., and Campos J.M. Control of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in the neonatal intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 26 (2005) 646-649
50. Saiman L., Cronquist A., Wu F., et al. An outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a neonatal intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 24 (2003) 317-321
51. Nicolle L.E., Dyck B., Thompson G., et al. Regional dissemination and control of epidemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Manitoba Chapter of CHICA-Canada. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 20 (1999) 202-205
52. Murray-Leisure K.A., Geib S., Graceley D., et al. Control of epidemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 11 (1990) 343-350
53. Khoury J., Jones M., Grim A., Dunne Jr. W.M., and Fraser V. Eradication of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from a neonatal intensive care unit by active surveillance and aggressive infection control measures. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 26 (2005) 616-621
54. Back N.A., Linnemann Jr. C.C., Staneck J.L., and Kotagal U.R. Control of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a neonatal intensive-care unit: use of intensive microbiologic surveillance and mupirocin. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 17 (1996) 227-231
55. Pearman J.W., Christiansen K.J., Annear D.I., et al. Control of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in an Australian metropolitan teaching hospital complex. Med J Aust 142 (1985) 103-108
56. Jochimsen E.M., Fish L., Manning K., et al. Control of vancomycin-resistant enterococci at a community hospital: efficacy of patient and staff cohorting. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 20 (1999) 106-109
57. Dembry L.M., Uzokwe K., and Zervos M.J. Control of endemic glycopeptide-resistant enterococci. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 17 (1996) 286-292
58. Hachem R., Graviss L., Hanna H., et al. Impact of surveillance for vancomycin-resistant enterococci on controlling a bloodstream outbreak among patients with hematologic malignancy. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 25 (2004) 391-394
59. Ridenour G.A., Wong E.S., Call M.A., and Climo M.W. Duration of colonization with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among patients in the intensive care unit: implications for intervention. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 27 (2006) 271-278
60. Jernigan J.A., Clemence M.A., Stott G.A., et al. Control of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus at a university hospital: one decade later. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 16 (1995) 686-696
61. Sandri A.M., Dalarosa M.G., Ruschel de Alcantara L., da Silva Elias L., and Zavascki A.P. Reduction in incidence of nosocomial methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection in an intensive care unit: role of treatment with mupirocin ointment and chlorhexidine baths for nasal carriers of MRSA. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 27 (2006) 185-187
62. Thompson R.L., Cabezudo I., and Wenzel R.P. Epidemiology of nosocomial infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Ann Intern Med 97 (1982) 309-317
63. Farrington M., Redpath C., Trundle C., Coomber S., and Brown N.M. Winning the battle but losing the war: methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection at a teaching hospital. QJM 91 (1998) 539-548
64. Haley R.W., Cushion N.B., Tenover F.C., et al. Eradication of endemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections from a neonatal intensive care unit. J Infect Dis 171 (1995) 614-624
65. Harbarth S., Martin Y., Rohner P., Henry N., Auckenthaler R., and Pittet D. Effect of delayed infection control measures on a hospital outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Hosp Infect 46 (2000) 43-49
66. Siddiqui A.H., Harris A.D., Hebden J., Wilson P.D., Morris Jr. J.G., and Roghmann M.C. The effect of active surveillance for vancomycin-resistant enterococci in high-risk units on vancomycin-resistant enterococci incidence hospital-wide. Am J Infect Control 30 (2002) 40-43
67. Huang S.S., Yokoe D.S., Hinrichsen V.L., et al. Impact of routine intensive care unit surveillance cultures and resultant barrier precautions on hospital-wide methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis 43 (2006) 971-978
68. Hidron A.I., Kourbatova E.V., Halvosa J.S., et al. Risk factors for colonization with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in patients admitted to an urban hospital: emergence of community-associated MRSA nasal carriage. Clin Infect Dis 41 (2005) 159-166
69. Jernigan J.A., Pullen A.L., Flowers L., Bell M., and Jarvis W.R. Prevalence of and risk factors for colonization with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus at the time of hospital admission. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 24 (2003) 409-414
70. Harbarth S., Sax H., Fankhauser-Rodriguez C., Schrenzel J., Agostinho A., and Pittet D. Evaluating the probability of previously unknown carriage of MRSA at hospital admission. Am J Med 119 (2006) 275 e15-23
71. Ostrowsky B.E., Trick W.E., Sohn A.H., et al. Control of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus in health care facilities in a region. N Engl J Med 344 (2001) 1427-1433
72. Price C.S., Paule S., Noskin G.A., and Peterson L.R. Active surveillance reduces the incidence of vancomycin-resistant enterococcal bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis 37 (2003) 921-928
73. Hand hygiene to reduce resistant bacteria in ICUs. ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT00100386. Available at: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov. Accessed May 9, 2006.
74. Cooper B.S., Medley G.F., Stone S.P., et al. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in hospitals and the community: stealth dynamics and control catastrophes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101 (2004) 10223-10228
75. Bootsma M.C., Diekmann O., and Bonten M.J. Controlling methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: quantifying the effects of interventions and rapid diagnostic testing. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103 (2006) 5620-5625
76. Perencevich E.N., Fisman D.N., Lipsitch M., Harris A.D., Morris Jr. J.G., and Smith D.L. Projected benefits of active surveillance for vancomycin-resistant enterococci in intensive care units. Clin Infect Dis 38 (2004) 1108-1115
77. Pan A., Carnevale G., Catenazzi P., et al. Trends in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bloodstream infections: effect of the MRSA "search and isolate" strategy in a hospital in Italy with hyperendemic MRSA. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 26 (2005) 127-133
78. Verhoef J., Beaujean D., Blok H., et al. A Dutch approach to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 18 (1999) 461-466
79. Vandenbroucke-Grauls C.M. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus control in hospitals: the Dutch experience. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 17 (1996) 512-513
80. Kluytmans-Vandenbergh M.F., Kluytmans J.A., and Voss A. Dutch guideline for preventing nosocomial transmission of highly resistant microorganisms (HRMO). Infection 33 (2005) 309-313
81. King M.D., Humphrey B.J., Wang Y.F., Kourbatova E.V., Ray S.M., and Blumberg H.M. Emergence of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus USA 300 clone as the predominant cause of skin and soft-tissue infections. Ann Intern Med 144 (2006) 309-317
82. Seybold U., Kourbatova E.V., Johnson J.G., et al. Emergence of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus USA300 genotype as a major cause of health care-associated blood stream infections. Clin Infect Dis 42 (2006) 647-656
83. Karchmer T.B., Durbin L.J., Simonton B.M., and Farr B.M. Cost-effectiveness of active surveillance cultures and contact/droplet precautions for control of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Hosp Infect 51 (2002) 126-132
84. Muto C.A., Giannetta E.T., Durbin L.J., Simonton B.M., and Farr B.M. Cost-effectiveness of perirectal surveillance cultures for controlling vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 23 (2002) 429-435
85. Chaix C., Durand-Zaleski I., Alberti C., and Brun-Buisson C. Control of endemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: a cost-benefit analysis in an intensive care unit. JAMA 282 (1999) 1745-1751
86. Montecalvo M.A., Jarvis W.R., Uman J., et al. Costs and savings associated with infection control measures that reduced transmission of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in an endemic setting. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 22 (2001) 437-442
87. Sanford M.D., Widmer A.F., Bale M.J., Jones R.N., and Wenzel R.P. Efficient detection and long-term persistence of the carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis 19 (1994) 1123-1128
88. Lai K.K., Fontecchio S.A., Kelley A.L., Melvin Z.S., and Baker S. The epidemiology of fecal carriage of vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 18 (1997) 762-765
89. Tacconelli E., Carmeli Y., Aizer A., Ferreira G., Foreman M.G., and D'Agata E.M. Mupirocin prophylaxis to prevent Staphylococcus aureus infection in patients undergoing dialysis: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 37 (2003) 1629-1638
90. Laupland K.B., and Conly J.M. Treatment of Staphylococcus aureus colonization and prophylaxis for infection with topical intranasal mupirocin: an evidence-based review. Clin Infect Dis 37 (2003) 933-938
91. Kauffman C.A., Terpenning M.S., He X., et al. Attempts to eradicate methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from a long-term-care facility with the use of mupirocin ointment. Am J Med 94 (1993) 371-378
92. Wong M.T., Kauffman C.A., Standiford H.C., et al. Effective suppression of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus species in asymptomatic gastrointestinal carriers by a novel glycolipodepsipeptide, ramoplanin. Clin Infect Dis 33 (2001) 1476-1482
93. Perl T.M., Cullen J.J., Wenzel R.P., et al. Intranasal mupirocin to prevent postoperative Staphylococcus aureus infections. N Engl J Med 346 (2002) 1871-1877
94. Walsh T.J., Standiford H.C., Reboli A.C., et al. Randomized double-blinded trial of rifampin with either novobiocin or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonization: prevention of antimicrobial resistance and effect of host factors on outcome. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 37 (1993) 1334-1342
95. Roccaforte J.S., Bittner M.J., Stumpf C.A., and Preheim L.C. Attempts to eradicate methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonization with the use of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, rifampin, and bacitracin. Am J Infect Control 16 (1988) 141-146
96. Loeb M., Main C., Walker-Dilks C., and Eady A. Antimicrobial drugs for treating methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonization. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2003) CD003340
97. Miller M.A., Dascal A., Portnoy J., and Mendelson J. Development of mupirocin resistance among methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus after widespread use of nasal mupirocin ointment. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 17 (1996) 811-813
98. Vasquez J.E., Walker E.S., Franzus B.W., Overbay B.K., Reagan D.R., and Sarubbi F.A. The epidemiology of mupirocin resistance among methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus at a Veterans' Affairs hospital. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 21 (2000) 459-464
99. Mondy K.E., Shannon W., and Mundy L.M. Evaluation of zinc bacitracin capsules versus placebo for enteric eradication of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Clin Infect Dis 33 (2001) 473-476
100. Hachem R., and Raad I. Failure of oral antimicrobial agents in eradicating gastrointestinal colonization with vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 23 (2002) 43-44
101. Vernon M.O., Hayden M.K., Trick W.E., Hayes R.A., Blom D.W., and Weinstein R.A. Chlorhexidine gluconate to cleanse patients in a medical intensive care unit: the effectiveness of source control to reduce the bioburden of vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Arch Intern Med 166 (2006) 306-312
102. Gerber S.I., Jones R.C., Scott M.V., et al. Management of outbreaks of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection in the neonatal intensive care unit: a consensus statement. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 27 (2006) 139-145
103. Muto C.A., Pokrywka M., Shutt K., et al. A large outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated disease with an unexpected proportion of deaths and colectomies at a teaching hospital following increased fluoroquinolone use. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 26 (2005) 273-280
104. Stelfox H.T., Bates D.W., and Redelmeier D.A. Safety of patients isolated for infection control. JAMA 290 (2003) 1899-1905
105. Evans H.L., Shaffer M.M., Hughes M.G., et al. Contact isolation in surgical patients: a barrier to care?. Surgery 134 (2003) 180-188
106. Kirkland K.B., and Weinstein J.M. Adverse effects of contact isolation. Lancet 354 (1999) 1177-1178
107. Saint S., Higgins L.A., Nallamothu B.K., and Chenoweth C. Do physicians examine patients in contact isolation less frequently? A brief report. Am J Infect Control 31 (2003) 354-356
108. Davis K.A., Stewart J.J., Crouch H.K., Florez C.E., and Hospenthal D.R. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) nares colonization at hospital admission and its effect on subsequent MRSA infection. Clin Infect Dis 39 (2004) 776-782
109. Lucet J.C., Grenet K., Armand-Lefevre L., et al. High prevalence of carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus at hospital admission in elderly patients: implications for infection control strategies. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 26 (2005) 121-126
110. Kotilainen P., Routamaa M., Peltonen R., et al. Eradication of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from a health center ward and associated nursing home. Arch Intern Med 161 (2001) 859-863