Group size: Determinants in the wild and implications for the captive housing of wild mammals in zoos

Applied Animal Behaviour Science

Volumn 103, Issue 3-4, 2007, Pages 255-264

  Price, Elizabeth E ^a   Stoinski, Tara S ^a,b  

^a ZOO ATLANTA   (United States)

^b Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International   (United States)

Author keywords

Behavior; Captivity; Group size; Reproduction

Indexed keywords

AVOIDANCE REACTION; CAPTIVE BREEDING; ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINT; FOOD AVAILABILITY; FOOD INTAKE; GROUP SIZE; MAMMAL; REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS; SURVIVAL; TERRITORIALITY; WILD POPULATION; ZOO;

ANIMALIA; MAMMALIA;

EID: 33847114801     PISSN: 01681591     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2006.05.021     Document Type: Article

References (79)

1. Alcock J. Animal Behavior (2001), Sinauer Associates Inc., Sunderland, Massachusetts
2. Alexander R.D. The evolution of social behavior. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 5 (1974) 325-383
3. Alford P.L., Bloomsmith M.A., Keeling M.E., and Beck T.F. Wounding aggression during the formation and maintenance of captive, multimale chimpanzee groups. Zoo Biol. 14 (1995) 347-359
4. Baker A.J., Bales K., and Dietz J.M. Mating system and group dynamics in lion tamarins. In: Kleinman D.G., and Rylands A.B. (Eds). Lion Tamarins: Biology and Conservation (2002), Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington 188-212
5. Barnes R., Greene K., Holland J., and Lamm M. Management and husbandry of duikers at the Los Angeles Zoo. Zoo Biol. 21 (2002) 107-121
6. Bardi M., Petto A.J., and Lee-Parritz D.E. Parental failure in captive cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus). Am. J. Primatol. 54 (2001) 159-169
7. Bashaw M.J., Tarou L.R., Maki T.S., and Maple T.L. A survey assessment of variables related to stereotypy in captive giraffe and okapi. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 73 (2002) 235-247
8. Bond M., and Watts E. Recommendations for infant social environment. In: Sodaro C. (Ed). Orangutan Species Survival Plan Husbandry Manual (1997), Chicago Zoological Park, Chicago 77-78
9. Brown J.L. Reproductive endocrinology monitoring of elephants: an essential tool for assessing captive management. Zoo Biol. 19 (2000) 347-367
10. Carbone C., Du Toit J.T., and Gordon I.J. Feeding success in African wild dogs: does kleptoparasitism by spotted hyenas influence hunting group size?. J. Anim. Ecol. 66 (1997) 318-326
11. Carlsted K., Brown J.L., and Seidensticker J. Behavioral and adrenocortical responses to environmental changes in leopard cats (Felis bengalensis). Zoo Biol. 12 (1993) 321-331
12. Carlstead K. Effects of captivity on the behavior of wild mammals. In: Kleinman D.G., Allen M.E., Thompson K.V., and Lumpkin S. (Eds). Wild Mammals in Captivity: Principles and Techniques (1996), University of Chicago Press, Chicago
13. Carlstead K., Fraser J., Bennett C., and Kleinman D.G. Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) in U.S. zoos: behavior, breeding success, and mortality in relation to housing facilities. Zoo Biol. 18 (1999) 35-52
14. Caro T.M. Behavioral solutions to breeding cheetahs in captivity: insights from the wild. Zoo Biol. 12 (1993) 19-30
15. Chapman C.A., Wrangham R.W., and Chapman L.J. Ecological constraints on group size: an analysis of spider monkey and chimpanzee subgroups. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 36 (1995) 59-70
16. Clutton-Brock T.H., and Harvey P.H. Primate ecology and social organization. J. Zool. (London) 183 (1977) 1-39
17. Cox C.R. Drills (Mandrillus leucophaeus): research and conservation initiatives, 1986-1996. In: Wallis J. (Ed). Primate Conservation: The Role of Zoological Parks (1997), The American Society of Primatologists 150-175
18. Courchamp F., and Macdonald D.W. Crucial importance of pack size in the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus). Anim. Conserv. 4 (2001) 169-174
19. Courchamp F., Rasmussen G.S.A., and Macdonald D.W. Small pack size imposes a trade-off between hunting and pup-guarding in the painted hunting dog Lycaon pictus. Behav. Ecol. 13 1 (2002) 20-27
20. Crook J.H., and Gartlan J.S. Evolution of primate societies. Nature 210 (1966) 1200-1203
21. Curtis D.J. Diet and nutrition in wild mongoose lemurs (Eulemur mongoz) and their implications for the evolution of female dominance and small group size in lemurs. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 124 (2004) 234-247
22. Dietz J. Kinship structure and reproductive skew. In: Bernard C., and Berman C.M. (Eds). Kinship and Behavior in Primates (2004), Oxford University Press, New York
23. De Waal F.B.M. The myth of a simple relation between space and aggression in captive primates. Zoo Biol. Suppl. 1 (1989) 141-148
24. DeWaal F.B.M. Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex Among Apes: Revised edition (1998), Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore
25. Davies C.R., Ayres J.M., Dye C., and Deane L.M. Malaria infection rate of Amazonian primates increases with body-weight and group-size. Funct. Ecol. 5 (1991) 655-662
26. Elton R.H. Baboon behavior under crowded conditions. In: Erwin J., Maple T.L., and Mitchell G. (Eds). Captivity and Behavior: Primates in breeding colonies, laboratories and zoos (1979), Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York 139-171
27. Epple G. Maintenance, breeding, and development of marmoset monkeys (Callitrichidae) in captivity. Folia Primatologica. 12 (1970) 56-76
28. Erwin J., and Deni R. Strangers in a strange land. In: Erwin J., Maple T., and Mitchell G. (Eds). Captivity and Behavior (1979), Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York
29. Fedigan L.M. Primate Paradigms: Sex Roles and Social Bonds (1992), University of Chicago Press, Chicago
30. Freeman E.W., Weiss E., and Brown J.L. Examination of the interrelationships of behavior, dominance status, and ovarian activity in captive Asian and African elephants. Zoo Biol. 23 (2004) 431-448
31. Gillespie T.R., and Chapman C.A. Determinants of group size in the red colobus monkey (Procolobus badius): an evaluation of the generality of the ecological-constraints model. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 50 (2001) 329-338
32. Ha J.C., Robinette R.L., and Sackett G.P. Social housing and pregnancy outcome in captive pigtailed macaques. Am. J. Primatol. 47 (1999) 153-163
33. Hearn G.W., Berghaier R.W., and George D.D. Evidence for social enhancement of reproduction in two Eulemur species. Zoo Biol. 15 (1996) 1-12
34. Hill R.A., and Lee P.C. Predation risk as an influence on group size in cercopithecoid primates: implications for social structure. J. Zool. 245 (1998) 447-456
35. Horr D.A. Orang-utan maturation: growing up in a female world. In: Chevalier-Skolnikoff S., and Poirier F. (Eds). Primate Bio-social Development: Biological, Social, and Ecological Determinants (1977), Garland Publishing, Inc., New York 289-321
36. Hosey G.R. How does the zoo environment affect the behaviour of captive primates?. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 90 (2005) 107-129
37. Janson C.H. Primate socio-ecology: the end of a golden age. Evol. Anthopol. 9 (2000) 73-86
38. Kuhar C.W., Bettinger T.L., Sironen A.L., Shaw J.H., and Lasley B.L. Factors affecting reproduction in zoo-housed Geoffroy's tamarins (Saguinus geoffroyi). Zoo Biol. 22 (2003) 55-559
39. Laws R.M. Aspects of reproduction in the African elephant, Loxodonta africana. J. Reprod. Fertil. Suppl. 6 (1969) 193-217
40. Leong K.M., Terrell S.P., and Savage A. Causes of mortality in captive cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus). Zoo Biol. 23 (2004) 127-137
41. Lewis M.H., Gluck J.P., Petitto J.M., Hensley L.L., and Ozer H. Early social deprivation in nonhuman primates: long-term effects on survival and cell-mediated immunity. Biol. Psychiatry 47 (2000) 119-126
42. Lindburg D.G., Iaderosa J., and Gledhill L. Steady-state propagation of captive lion-tailed macaques in North American zoos: a conservation strategy. In: Wallis J. (Ed). Primate Conservation: The Role of Zoological Parks (1997), The American Society of Primatologists 130-149
43. Loehle C. Social barriers to pathogen transmission in wild animal populations. Ecology 76 (1995) 326-335
44. Lukas K.E., Hoff M.P., and Maple T.L. Gorilla behavior in response to systematic alternation between zoo enclosures. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 81 (2003) 367-386
45. Maple T.L., and Hoff M.P. Gorilla Behavior (1982), Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York
46. Markham R.C. Breeding orangutans at Perth Zoo: 20 years of appropriate husbandry. Zoo Biol. 9 (1990) 171-182
47. Mellen J.D. Factors influencing reproductive success in small captive exotic felids (Felis ssp.). A multiple regression analysis. Zoo Biol. 10 (1991) 95-110
48. Mellen J.D., Hayes M.P., and Shepherdson D.J. Captive environments for small felids. In: Shepherdson D.J., Mellen D.J., and Hutchins J.D.M. (Eds). Second Nature: Environmental Enrichment for Captive Animals (1998), Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington 184-201
49. Müller A.E., and Soligo C. Primate sociality in evolutionary context. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 128 (2005) 399-414
50. Müller A.E., and Thalmann U. Origin and evolution of primate social organization: a reconstruction. Biol. Rev. 75 (2000) 405-435
51. Munn C., and Fernandez M. Infant development. In: Sodaro C. (Ed). Orangutan Species Survival Plan Husbandry Manual (1997), Chicago Zoological Park, Chicago 67-76
52. Newberry R.C. Environmental enrichment: increasing the biological relevance of captive environments. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 44 (1995) 229-243
53. Newberry R.C., and Estevez I. A dynamic approach to the study of environmental enrichment and animal welfare. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 54 (1997) 53-57
54. Pimley E.R., Bearder S.K., and Dixson A.F. Social organization of the Milne-Edward's potto. Am. J. Primatol. 66 (2005) 317-330
55. Plowman A.B., Jordan N.R., Anderson N., Condon E., and Fraser O. Welfare implications of captive primate population management: behavioural and psycho-social effects of female-based contraception, oestrus and male removal in hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas). Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 90 (2005) 155-165
56. Pullen P.K. Preliminary comparisons of male/male interactions within bachelor and breeding groups of western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 90 (2005) 143-153
57. Redbo I., Redbo-Torstensson P., Odberg F.O., Hedendahl A., and Holm J. Factors affecting behavioural disturbances in race-horses. Anim. Sci. 66 (1998) 475-481
58. Richard A.F. Primates in Nature (1985), W.H. Freeman and Company, New York
59. Robbins M.M. Male-male interactions in heterosexual and all-male wild mountains gorilla groups. Ethology 102 (1996) 942-965
60. Rothe H., Koenig A., and Darms K. Infant survival and number of helpers in captive groups of common marmosets (Callithrix jaccus). Am. J. Primatol. 30 2 (1993) 131-137
61. Savage A., Giraldo H., and Soto L. Developing a conservation action program for the cotton-top tamarin (Saguinis oedipus). In: Wallis J. (Ed). Primate Conservation: The Role of Zoological Parks (1997), The American Society of Primatologists 96-111
62. Savage A., Snowdon C.T., Giraldo H.L., and Soto L.H. Parental care patterns and vigilance in wild cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus). In: Norconk M., Rosenberger A., and Garber P. (Eds). Adaptive Radiations of Neotropical Primates (1996), Plenum Press, New York 187-199
63. Seror B., Zorovsky Y., Terkel A., and Katcoff D.J. Genetic kinship and social structure in a herd of square-lipped rhinocersoses (Ceratotherium simum simum) at the Zoological Center, Tel Aviv/Ramat-Gan, Israel. Zoo Biol. 21 (2002) 561-571
64. Spong G. Space use in lions, Panthera leo, in the Selous Game Reserve: social and ecological factors. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 52 (2002) 303-307
65. Steenbeek R., and van Schaik C.P. Competition and group size in Thomas's langurs (Presbytis thomasi): the folivore paradox revisited. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 49 (2001) 100-110
66. Sterck E.H.M., Watts D.P., and van Schaik C.P. The evolution of female social relationships in nonhuman primates. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 41 (1997) 291-309
67. Stoinski T.S., Kuhar C.W., Lukas K.E., and Maple T.L. Social dynamics of captive western lowland gorillas living in all-male groups. Behaviour 141 (2004) 169-195
68. Stoinski T.S., Lukas K.E., Kuhar C.W., and Maple T.L. Factors influencing the formation and maintenance of all-male gorilla groups in captivity. Zoo Biol. 23 (2004) 189-203
69. Stokes E.J., Parnell R.J., and Olejniczak C. Female dispersal and reproductive success in wild western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 54 (2003) 329-339
70. Swanson W.F., Johnson W.E., Cambre R.C., Citino S.B., Quigley K.B., Brousset D.M., Morais R.N., Moreira N., O'Brien S.J., and Wildt D.E. Reproductive status of endemic felid species in Latin American zoos and implications for ex situ conservation. Zoo Biol. 22 (2003) 421-441
71. Timmermans P.J.A., Schouten W.G.P., and Krijnen J.C.M. Reproduction of cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) in harems. Lab. Anim. 15 (1981) 119-123
72. Vucetich J.A., Peterson R.O., and Waite T.A. Raven scavenging favours group foraging in wolves. Anim. Behav. 67 (2004) 1117-1126
73. Watson R.M. Reproduction of wildebeest, Connochaetes taurinus albojubatus Thomas, in the Serengeti region, and its significance to conservation. J. Reprod. Fertil. Suppl. 6 (1969) 287-310
74. Watts D. Causes and consequences of variation in male mountain gorilla life histories and group membership. In: Kappeler P. (Ed). Primate Males (2000), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 169-179
75. Watts E., and Meder A. Introduction and socialization techniques for primates. In: Kleinman D.G., Allen M.E., Thompson K.V., and Lumpkin S. (Eds). Wild Mammals in Captivity: Principles and Techniques (1996), University of Chicago Press, Chicago
76. White B.C., Houser L.A., Fuller J.A., Taylor S., and Elliott J.L.L. Activity-based exhibition of five mammalian species: evaluation of behavioural changes. Zoo Biol. 22 (2003) 269-285
77. Wilson E.O. Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (2000), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
78. Zucker E.L., Mitchell G., and Maple T. Adult male-offspring play interactions within a captive group of orangutans. Primates 19 (1978) 379-384
79. Zucker E. Adult male orangutan sociality in captivity. In: Ogden J.J., Perkins L.A., and Sheeran L. (Eds). Proceedings of the International Conference on Orangutans: The Neglected Ape (1994), Zoological Society of San Diego, San Diego