Ironstone bodies of the Barberton greenstone belt, South Africa: Products of a Cenozoic hydrological system, not Archean hydrothermal vents!

Bulletin of the Geological Society of America

Volumn 119, Issue 1-2, 2007, Pages 65-87

  Lowe, Donald R ^a   Byerly, Gary R ^b  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Archean; Barberton greenstone belt; Early life; Ironstone; Sedimentology; South Africa; Springs

Indexed keywords

BARBERTON GREENSTONE BELT; GOETHITE; HEMATITE; IRONSTONE PODS;

COMPOSITION; DEFORMATION; HYDROLOGY; IRON OXIDES; SEDIMENTOLOGY; STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY; TEMPERATURE;

GEOCHEMISTRY;

CENOZOIC; HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEM; HYDROTHERMAL VENT; IRONSTONE; PETROGRAPHY; SEDIMENTOLOGY; SIDERITE;

AFRICA; BARBERTON GREENSTONE BELT; KAAPVAAL CRATON; SOUTHERN AFRICA; SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA;

EID: 33846481052     PISSN: 00167606     EISSN: 00167606     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1130/B25997.1     Document Type: Article

References (50)

1. Brasier, M.D., Green, O.R., Jephcoat, A.P., Kleppe, A.K., Van Kranendonk, M.J., Lindsay, J.F., Steele, A., and Grassineau, N.V., 2002, Questioning the evidence for Earth's oldest fossils: Nature, v. 416, p. 76-81, doi:10.1038/416076a.
2. Brasier, M.D., Green, O.R., Lindsay, J.F., McLoughlin, N., Steele, A., and Stoakes, C., 2005, Critical testing of Earth's oldest putative fossil assemblage from the ∼3.5 Ga Apex chert, Chinaman Creek, Western Australia: Precambrian Research, v. 140, p. 55-102, doi:10.1016/ j.precamres.2005.06.008.
3. Braunstein, D., and Lowe, D.R., 2001, Relationship between spring and geyser activity and the deposition and morphology of high temperature (>73°C) siliceous sinter, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, USA: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 71, p. 747-763.
4. Byerly, G.R., Lowe, D.R., Wooden, J.L., and Xie, X., 2002, An Archean impact layer from the Pilbara and Kaapvaal cratons: Science, v. 297, p. 1325-1327, doi:10.1126/science.1073934.
5. Catling, D.C., and Moore, J.M., 2003, The nature of coarse-grained crystalline hematite and its implications for the early environment of Mars: Icarus, v. 165, p. 277-300, doi: 10.1016/S0019-1035(03)00173-8.
6. - composition of ∼3.23 Ga modified seawater: Implications for the geological evolution of ocean halide chemistry: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 150, p. 325-335, doi: 10.1016/ S0012-821X(97)00101-5.
7. Corliss, J.B., Baross, J.A., and Hoffman, S.E., 1981, An hypothesis concerning the relationship between submarine hot springs and the origin of life on earth: Supplement C4: Oceanologica Acta, v. 4, p. 59-69.
8. Dann, J.C., 2000, The 3.5 Ga Komati Formation, Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa, Pan 1: New maps and magmatic architecture: South African Journal of Geology, v. 103, p. 47-68, doi: 10.2113/103.1.47.
9. de Ronde, C.E.J., and Ebbesen, T.W., 1996, 3.2 billion years of organic compound formation near seafloor hot springs: Geology, v. 24, p. 791-794, doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0791:BYOOCF>2.3.CO;2.
10. 39Ar age spectra from early Archean (∼3.5 Ga) Barberton greenstone belt sediments: A technique for detecting cryptic tectono-thermal events: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 55, p. 1933-1951, doi: 10.1016/0016-7037(91)90034-3.
11. de Ronde, C.E.J., de Wit, M.J., and Spooner, E.T.C., 1994, Early Archean (>3.2 Ga) Fe-oxide-rich, hydrothermal discharge vents in the Barberton greenstone belt, South Africa: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 106, p. 86-104, doi: 10.1130/ 0016-7606(1994)106<0086:EAGFOR>2.3.CO;2.
12. de Ronde, C.E.J., Channer, D.M.D., Faure, K., Bray, C.J., and Spooner, E.T.C., 1997, Fluid chemistry of Archean seafloor hydrothermal vents: Implications for the composition of circa 3.2 Ga seawater: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 61, p. 4025-4042, doi: 10.1016/ S0016-7037(97)00205-6.
13. de Ronde, C.E.J., de Wit, M.J., Spooner, E.T.C., and Channer, D.M.deR., Christenson, B.W., Bray, C.J., and Faure, K., 2004, Ironstone pods in the Archean Barberton greenstone belt, South Africa: Earth's oldest seafloor hydrothermal vents reinterpreted as Quaternary subaerial springs: Comment: Geology, Online Forum, p. e68.
14. de Wit, M.J., Hart, R., Martin, A., and Abbott, P., 1982, Archean abiogenic and probable biogenic structures associated with mineralized hydrothermal vent systems and regional metasomatism, with implications for greenstone belt studies: Economic Geology and Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists, v. 77, p. 1783-1802.
15. Fernandez-Remolar, D.C., Morris, R.V., Gruener, J.E., Amils, R., and Knoll, A.H., 2005, The Rio Tinto Basin, Spain: Mineralogy, sedimentary geobiology, and implications for interpretation of outcrop rocks at Meridiani Planum, Mars: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 240, p. 149-167, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2005.09.043.
16. Fischer, W.R., and Schwertmann, U., 1975, The formation of hematite from amorphous iron (III) hydroxide: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 23, p. 33-37.
17. 36Cl: Initial results: Geological Society [London] Journal, v. 156, p. 209-212.
18. Fryer, B.L, Fyfe, W.S., and Kerrich, R., 1979, Archaean volcanogenic oceans: Chemical Geology, v. 24, p. 25-33, doi: 10.1016/ 0009-2541(79)90010-X.
19. Harrison, C.G.A., 1999, Constraints on ocean volume change since the Archean: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 26, p. 1913-1916, doi: 10.1029/ 1999GL900425.
20. Heinrichs, T.K., 1980, Lithostratigraphische Untersuchungen in der Fig Tree Gruppe des Barberton Greenstone Belt zwischen Umsoli und Lomati (Südafrika): Göttinger Arbeiten zur Geologie und Paläontologie, v. 22, 118 p.
21. Hren, M.T., Lowe, D.R., Tice, M.M., Byerly, G.R., and Chamberlain, C.P., 2006, Stable isotope and rare earth element evidence for recent ironstone pods within the Archean Barberton greenstone belt, South Africa: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 70, p. 1457-1470, doi: 10.1016/j.gca.2005.11.016.
22. Kato, Y., and Nakamura, K., 2003, Origin and global tectonic significance of Early Archean cherts from the Marble Bar greenstone belt, Pilbara Craton, Western Australia: Precambrian Research, v. 125, p. 191-243, doi: 10.1016/S0301-9268(03)00043-3.
23. Knauth, L.P., and Lowe, D.R., 2003, High Archean climatic temperatures inferred from oxygen isotope geochemistry of cherts in the 3.5 Ga Swaziland Supergroup, South Africa: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 115, p. 566-580, doi: 10.1130/ 0016-7606(2003)115<0566:HACTIF>2.0.CO;2.
24. Lowe, D.R., 1999a, Petrology and sedimentology of cherts and related silicified sedimentary rocks in the Swaziland Supergroup, in Lowe, D.R., and Byerly, G.R., eds., Geologic Evolution of the Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa: Geological Society of America Special Paper 329, p. 83-114.
25. Lowe, D.R., 1999b, Geologic evolution of the Barberton Greenstone Belt and vicinity, in Lowe, D.R., and Byerly, G.R., eds., Geologic Evolution of the Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa: Geological Society of America Special Paper 329, p. 287-312.
26. Lowe, D.R., and Braunstein, D., 2003, Microstructure of high-temperature (>73°C) siliceous sinter deposited around hot springs and geysers, Yellowstone National Park: The role of biological and abiological processes in sedimentation: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 40, p. 1611-1642, doi: 10.1139/e03-066.
27. Lowe, D.R., and Byerly, G.R., 1999, Stratigraphy of the west-central part of the Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa, in Lowe, D.R., and Byerly, G.R., eds., Geologic Evolution of the Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa: Geological Society of America Special Paper 329, p. 1-36.
28. Lowe, D.R., and Byerly, G.R., 2003, Ironstone pods in the Archean Barberton greenstone belt, South Africa: Earth's oldest seafloor hydrothermal vents reinterpreted as Quaternary subaerial springs: Geology, v. 31, p. 909-912, doi: 10.1130/G19664.1.
29. Lowe, D.R., and Byerly, G.R., 2004, Ironstone pods in the Archean Barberton greenstone belt, South Africa: Earth's oldest seafloor hydrothermal vents reinterpreted as Quaternary subaerial springs: Reply: Geology, p. e69, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2004)312.0.CO;2.
30. Lowe, D.R., Byerly, G.R., and Heubeck, C., 1999, Structural divisions and development of the west-central part of the Barberton Greenstone Belt, in Lowe, D.R., and Byerly, G.R., eds., Geologic Evolution of the Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa: Geological Society of America Special Paper 329, p. 37-82.
31. Lowe, D.R., Anderson, K.S., and Braunstein, D., 2001, The zonation and structuring of siliceous sinter around hot springs, Yellowstone National Park, and the role of thermophilic bacteria in its deposition, in Reysenbach, A.-L., et al., eds., Thermophiles: Biodiversity, Ecology, and Evolution: New York, Kluwer Academic/Plenum, p. 143-166.
32. Nisbet, E.G., and Sleep, N.H., 2001, The habitat and nature of early life: Nature, v. 409, p. 1083-1091, doi: 10.1038/35059210.
33. Paris, I., Stanistreet, I.G., and Hughes, M.J., 1985, Cherts of the Barberton Greenstone Belt as products of submarine exhalative activity: Journal of Geology, v. 93, p. 111-129.
34. Rasmussen, B., 2000, Filamentous microfossils in a 3,235-million-year-old volcanogenic massive sulphide deposit: Nature, v. 405, p. 676-679, doi: 10.1038/35015063.
35. Reyes, A.G., Grapes, R., and Clemente, V.C., 2003, Fluid-rock interaction at the magmatic-hydrothermal interface of the Mount Cagua geothermal system, Philippines: Society of Economic Geologists Special Publication 10, p. 197-222.
36. Roy, A., Byerly, G.E., Lowe, D.R., Walsh, M.W., and Bianchetti, C., 2005, Iron and manganese minerals from South African ironstone deposits: Physica Scripta, v. T115, p. 918-920, doi: 10.1238/ Physica.Topical.115a00918.
37. Schidlowski, M., 2001, Carbon isotopes as biogeochemical recorders of life over 3.8 Ga of Earth history: Evolution of a concept: Precambrian Research, v. 106, p. 117-134, doi: 10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00128-5.
38. Schopf, J.W., Kudryavtsev, A.B., Agresti, D.G., Wdowiak, T.J., and Czaja, A.D., 2002, Laser-Raman imagery of Earth's earliest fossils: Nature, v. 416, p. 73-76, doi: 10.1038/416073a.
39. Schwertmann, U., and Murad, E., 1983, Effect of pH on the formation of goethite and hematite from ferrihydrite: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 31, p. 277-284.
40. Schwertmann, U., and Taylor, R.M., 1977, Iron oxides, in Dixon, J.B., and Weed, S.B., eds., Minerals in Soil Environments: Madison, Wisconsin, Soil Science Society of America, p. 145-180.
41. Shock, E.L., 1996, Hydrothermal systems as environments for the emergence of life, in Bock, G.R., and Goode, J.A., eds., Evolution of Hydrothermal Systems on Earth (and Mars?): Chichester, UK, Wiley, p. 40-52.
42. Siever, R., 1992, The silica cycle in the Precambrian: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 56, p. 3265-3272, doi: 10.1016/ 0016-7037(92)90303-Z.
43. Sugitani, K., 1992, Geochemical characteristics of Archean cherts and other sedimentary rocks in the Pilbara Block, Western Australia: Evidence for Archean seawater enriched in hydrothermally-derived iron and silica: Precambrian Research, v. 57, p. 21-47, doi: 10.1016/ 0301-9268(92)90093-4.
44. Tice, M.M., Bostick, B.C., and Lowe, D.R., 2004, Thermal history of the 3.5-3.2 Ga Onverwacht and Fig Tree Groups, Barberton greenstone belt, South Africa, inferred by Raman microspectroscopy of carbonaceous material: Geology, v. 32, p. 37-40, doi: 10.1130/G19915.1.
45. Toulkeridis, T., Goldstein, S.L., Clauer, N., Kroner, A., Todt, W., and Schidlowski, M., 1998, Sm-Nd, Rb-Sr and Pb-Pb dating of silicic carbonates from the early Archaean Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa: Evidence for post-depositional isotopic resetting at low temperature: Precambrian Research, v. 92, p. 129-144, doi: 10.1016/ S0301-9268(98)00071-0.
46. Veizer, J., Compston, W., Hoefs, J., and Nielson, H., 1982, Mantle buffering of the early oceans: Die Naturwissenschaften, v. 69, p. 173-180, doi: 10.1007/BF00364890.
47. Walter, M.R., 1976, Geyserites of Yellowstone National Park: An example of abiogenic "stromatolites," in Walter, M.R., ed., Stromatolites: Amsterdam, Elsevier, p. 87-112.
48. Westall, F., de Wit, M.J., Dann, J., van der Gaast, S., de Ronde, C.E.J., and Gerneke, D., 2001, Early Archean fossil bacteria and biofilms in hydrothermally-influenced sediments from the Barberton greenstone belt, South Africa: Precambrian Research, v. 106, p. 93-116, doi: 10.1016/S0301-9268(00)00127-3.
49. Xie, X., Byerly, G.R., and Ferrell, R.E., 1997, IIb trioctahedral chlorite from the Barberton greenstone belt: Crystal structure and rock composition constraints with implications for geothermometry: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 126, p. 275-291, doi: 10.1007/s004100050250.
50. Yapp, C., 2001, Rusty relics of earth history: Iron (III) oxides, isotopes, and surficial environments: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v, 29, p. 165-199, doi: 10.1146/ annurev.earth.29.1.165.