What are armed forces for? the changing nature of military roles in Europe

International Affairs

Volumn 82, Issue 6, 2006, Pages 1059-1075

  Edmunds, Timothy ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 33846422760     PISSN: 00205850     EISSN: 14682346     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2346.2006.00588.x     Document Type: Article

References (70)

1. The term 'armed forces' broadly applied can incorporate a number of different institutions and organizations associated with application of coercive force, including, for example, the police or private security companies. However, this article discusses a number of specific challenges and developments that relate particularly to regular military structures. I therefore use the term 'armed forces' in a narrow sense to refer to regular armed forces: armies, navies and air forces.
2. Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics among nations: the struggle for power and peace, 5th edn (New York: Alfred A. Knoff, 1973), pp. 126-30.
3. Martin Edmonds, Armed services and society (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1988), p. 29. Edmonds goes on to observe that the one possible exception to this rule is the military assumption of authority in response to national collapse. He also recognizes that in much of the Third World military roles are far broader than this. See also Louis W. Goodman, 'Military roles past and present', in Larry Diamond and Marc P. Plattner, eds, Civil-military relations and democracy (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996).
4. See e.g. Mohammed Ayoob, The Third World security predicament: state making, regional conflict and the international system (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1995), pp. 192-3;
5. Alice Hills, 'Security sector reform and some comparative issues in the police-military interface', Contemporary Security Policy 21:3, Dec. 2000;
6. Kees Koonings, 'Political armies, security forces and democratic consolidation in Latin America', in Gavin Cawthra and Robin Luckham, eds, Governing insecurity: democratic control of the military and security establishments in transitional democracies (London: Zed, 2003).
7. Larry L. "Watts, Whose professionalism? Separating the institutional roles of the military and police, CSRC Report M23 (Camberley: Conflict Studies Research Centre, Nov. 2001), p. 2.
8. Harold D. Lasswell, 'The garrison state', American Journal of Sociology 46, Jan. 1941, pp. 457-8.
9. Samuel P. Huntington, The soldier and the state: the theory and politics of civil-military relations (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, Harvard University Press, 1957), p. 12.
10. Morris Janowitz, The professional soldier: a social and political portrait (New York: Free Press, 1960), p. 15.
11. Edmonds, Armed services, p. 2.
12. Christopher Dandeker, 'On "the need to be different": recent trends in military culture', in Hew Strachan, ed., The British army, manpower and society into the twenty-first century (London: Frank Cass, 2000), pp. 175-85;
13. Charles C. Moskos and James Burk, 'The postmodern military', in James Burk, The adaptive military: armed forces in a turbulent world (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, and edn, 2002), pp. 168-90;
14. Charles C. Moskos, 'Toward a postmodern military : the United States as a paradigm', in Charles C. Moskos, John Allen Williams and David R. Segal, eds, The postmodern military: armedforces after the Cold War (New York and Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 19-25.
15. Iceland is an exception to this rule, maintaining only a small coastguard and no regular armed forces. The micro-states of Andorra, Liechtenstein and Monaco also have no regular armed forces. The Vatican City and San Marino maintain very small military forces for primarily ceremonial roles.
16. Mike Smith, 'Deconstructing low intensity warfare', Review of International Studies 29: 1, 2003, pp. 29-31.
17. Smith, 'Deconstructing low intensity warfare', pp. 29-30; Mary Kaldor, New and old wars: organized violence in a global era (Cambridge: Polity, 2002), pp. 13-30.
18. See e.g. Richard Stubbs, Hearts and minds in guerrilla warfare: the Malayan Emergency, 1948-1960 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 255-60.
19. Martin Van Creveld, The transformation of war (New York: Free Press, 1991), pp. 35-42.
20. Moskos, 'Toward a postmodern military', pp. 16-19.
21. Timothy Edmunds, Anthony Forster and Andrew Cottey, 'Conclusion: patterns and trends in military-society relations in postcommunist Europe', in Anthony Forster, Timothy Edmunds and Andrew Cottey, eds, Soldiers and societies in postcommunist Europe: legitimacy and change (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), pp. 245-52.
22. Kaldor, New and old wars, pp. 44-57; John Mueller, "The banality of "ethnic war'", International Security 25: 1 Summer 2000, pp. 57-52, 62.
23. Susan L. Woodward, 'In whose interest is security sector reform? Lessons from the Balkans', in Cawthra and Luckham, Governing insecurity, pp. 282-4.
24. For a discussion of the nature of military professionalism, see Anthony Forster, Timothy Edmunds and Andrew Cottey, 'Introduction: the professionalisation of armed forces in postcommunist Europe', in Anthony Forster, Timothy Edmunds and Andrew Cottey, eds, The challenge of military reform in postcommunist Europe: Building professional armed Jones (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), pp. 2-8.
25. See e.g. Ministry of Defence, Delivering security in a changing world: future capabilities (Norwich: Stationery Office, 2004.
26. With varying degrees of success and commitment. Poland and Romania, for example, have made significant military contributions to the multinational military operations in Afghanistan and Poland; Hungary and the Czech Republic have been less willing to invest in these areas. Nonetheless, across the region, governments have focused their military reform efforts on developing more flexible and more professional elements within their armed forces that are more suited to deployment abroad in multinational military operations. See Timothy Edmunds, 'NATO and its new members', Survival 45: 3, Autumn 2003, pp. 155-6.
27. See e.g. Alex J. Bellamy, 'Security sector reform: problems and prospects', Global Change Peace and Security 15: 2, June 2003, pp. 99-117;
28. Jane Chanaa, Security sector reform: issues, challenges and prospects, Adelphi Paper 344 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 21-8;
29. Timothy Edmunds, Security sector reform in transforming societies: Croatia and Serbia-Montenegro (Manchester: Manchester University Press, forthcoming 2007);
30. Dylan Hendrickson, A review of security sector reform (London: Centre for Defence Studies, 1999);
31. Alice Hills, 'Defence diplomacy and security sector reform', Contemporary Security Policy 21: 1, April 2000;
32. Chris Smith, 'Security sector reform: institutional engineering or development breakthrough?', Confilict, Security and Development 1: 1, 2001, pp. 5-19.
33. Edmunds, Security sector reform in transforming societies (forthcoming).
34. For a good exploration of these themes in relation to Africa and Central America, see Hills, 'Defence diplomacy and security sector reform", pp. 52-62.
35. Examples include India and Pakistan, in confrontation in South Asia, and the two Koreas in North-East Asia.
36. Philippe Manigart, 'Public opinion on defence policy in the countries of the European Union", in Marie Vlachová, ed., The public image of defence and the military in central and eastern Europe (Geneva : Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, 2003), pp. 30, 32.
37. Dandeker, 'On "the need to be different'", pp. 174-5; Edmonds, Armed services, p. 43 ;
38. Smith, 'Security sector reform', p. 16.
39. For a discussion of this issue in relation to Poland, the Czech Republic and Hungary, see Edmunds, 'NATO and its new members', pp. 150-60.
40. Charles C. Moskos, 'Toward a postmodern military?', in Stuart A. Cohen, ed., Democratic societies and their armed forces: Israel in comparative context (London : Frank Cass, 2000), pp. 9-10.
41. Forster et al., 'Introduction : the professionalisation', pp. 2-5, 8-12.
42. See e.g. Moskos et al., The postmodern military.
43. Anthony Forster, Armedforces and society in Europe (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), p. 38.
44. Forster, Armed forces, pp. 203-207.
45. See e.g. Robert "W. Duggleby, 'The disintegration of the Russian armed forces', Journal of Slavic Military Studies 11: 2, June 1998;
46. Dale R. Herspring, 'The Russian military faces "creeping disintegration"', Demokratizatsiya 7: 4, Fall 1999.
47. See also Isabelle Facon, The modernisation of the Russian military: the ambitions and ambiguities of Vladimir Putin, CSRC report 05/19 (e) (Camberley: Conflict Studies Research Centre, August 2005).
48. 'Defence capabilities initiative', NATO website, 25 April 1999, http://www.nato.int/docu/pr/1999/p99s069e.htm, accessed 10 October 2006.
49. See e.g. 'The role of allied military forces and the transformation of the alliance's defence posture', NATO Handbook, 8 Oct. 2002, http://www.nato.int/docu/handbook/2001/hb0204.htm, accessed 10 October 2006.
50. Timothy Edmunds, 'Political conditionally and security sector reform in postcommunist Europe', Conflict, Security and Development 3:1, 2003, pp. 139-44; Edmunds, 'NATO and its new members', pp. 150-52.
51. Alex J. Bellamy, Paul "Williams and Stuart Griffin, Understanding peacekeeping (Cambridge: Polity, 2004), pp. 34-55.
52. Former UN special envoy to the Balkans Carl Bildt has criticized the US military contribution to SFOR's predecessor, IFOR, on these grounds, observing that 'in their operation there was very little between doing nothing and a massive use of military force': Carl Bildt, Peace journey: the struggle for peace in Bosnia (London: "Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1999), p. 303.
53. Annika Hansen, From Congo to Kosovo; civilian police in peace operations, Adelphi Paper 343 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 15-31;
54. Graham Day and Cliristopher Freeman, 'Policekeeping is the key: rebuilding the internal security architecture of postwar Iraq", International Affairs 79; 2, 2003, pp. 303-306.
55. A. B. Featherstone, 'Putting the peace back into peacekeeping: theory must inform practice', International Peacekeeping 1: 1, Spring 1994, pp. 17-18.
56. Andrew Cottey, Timothy Edmunds and Anthony Forster, 'Military matters : beyond Prague', NATO Review 50: 3, Oct. 2002.
57. Peter Viggo Jakobsen, 'Stealing the show: peace operations and Danish defence transformation after the Cold War'; Pál Dunay, 'Peace operations and the Hungarian armed forces', both in Timothy Edmunds and Marjan Malešič, eds, Defence transformation after the Cold War: challenges for armed forces (Amsterdam: IOS Press, 2005), pp. 40-3, 48-51.
58. David H. Bayley, 'The police and political development in Europe', in Charles Tilley, ed., The formation of national states in Europe (Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press, 1975), pp. 328-9.
59. See e.g. NATO, Report on the Partnership Action Plan against Terrorism, 23 June 2004, http://www.nato.int/docu/basictxt/b040623be.htm, accessed 10 October 2006.
60. Koonings, 'Political armies', pp. 125-8; Watts, Whose professionalism?, p. 10.
61. International Crisis Group, 'Central Asian Perspectives on 11 September and the Afghan crisis', ICG Briefing (Osh/Brussels: ICG, 28 Sept. 2001), pp. 4-6;
62. International Crisis Group, 'Uzbekistan: the Andijon uprising', ICG Asia Briefing 38 (Bishkek/Brussels: ICG, 25 May 2005), pp. 1-7;
63. Tamara Makarenko and Daphne Bilouri, 'Central Asian states set to pay the price of US strikes', Jane's Intelligence Review, Nov. 2001, pp. 34-5.
64. Watts, Whose professionalism?, pp. 11-12.
65. Edmunds, Security sector reform in transforming societies (forthcoming).
66. In the context of this article, political and societal perceptions that the military fulfils this role are more important than whether it actually does so in reality. For a critical discussion of the 'school of the nation' role in practice, see Ronald R. Krebs, 'A school for the nation : how military service does not build nations and how it might', International Security 28:4, Spring 2004, pp. 85-144.
67. Ellen Jones, Red Army and society: a sociology of the Soviet military (Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1985), pp. 150-55, 196-8.
68. Jones, Red Army, pp. 42-6
69. Marie Vlachová, 'The integration of the Czech armed forces into society", in Forster et al., Soldiers and societies, pp. 44, 47-8, 52.
70. Timothy Edmunds, Defence reform in Croatia and Serbia-Montenegro, Adelphi Paper 360 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 40-43.