A forgotten case of "scientific excellence on the periphery": The nationalist cocaine science of Alfredo Bignon, 1884-1887

Comparative Studies in Society and History

Volumn 49, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 202-232

  Gootenberg, Paul ^a  

^a STONY BROOK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

INNOVATION; MEDICINE; RESEARCH; SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY;

LATIN AMERICA;

EID: 33845704587     PISSN: 00104175     EISSN: 14752999     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S001041750700045X     Document Type: Article

References (171)

1. Ernest Jones, The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud (New York: Anchor Books, 1963), 51.
2. Marcos Cueto, Excelencia científica en la periferia: Activiades científicas e investigaciíon biomédica en el Perú. 1890-1950 (Lima: CONCYTEC, 1989).
3. For a few exemplars: Nancy Leys Stepan, "The Hour of Eugenics": Race, Gender and Nation in Latin America (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991)
4. M. Cueto, ed., Saberes andinos: Ciencia y technología en Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1995)
5. Steven Palmer, From Popular Medicine to Medical Populism: Doctors, Healers and Public Power in Costa Rica (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003)
6. Julyan Peard, Race, Place and Medicine: The Idea of the Tropics in Nineteenth-Century Brazilian Medicine (Durham: Duke University Press, 1999)
7. Anne-Emanuelle Birn, Marriage of Convenience: The Rockefeller Foundation, International Health and Revolutionary Mexico (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2005)
8. Diego Armus, ed., Disease in the History of Modern Latin America: From Malaria to AIDS (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003).
9. Bignon merits two briefrnentions (pp. 114, 117) in Joseph Gagliano's survey Coca Prohibition in Peru: The Historical Debates (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994), but none in Cueto's superb (but post-1890) analysis of Peruvian science, Excelencia científica.
10. Two hagiographic essays represent a flash of (pro-industrial?) pharmaceutical nationalism during World War II: Aurea Tejeda Barba, "Un talento olvidado: Alfredo Bignon," Actasy Trabajos: Primero Congreso Farmacéutico Peruano (May 1943), 609-15,
11. and Luis Vallejos Santoni, "Estudios científicos sobre la coca peruana desde H. Unánue hasta A. Bignon," (ibid.), 578-83.
12. Alejandro Garland, El Perú en 1906 (Lima: Imp. La Industria, 1907), 29. A Calle Bignon reputedly existed in Lima.
13. An extensive bibliography exists on Freud and cocaine, with three highly divergent views. In addition to Bernfield's 1953 revelatory article (rept. in Byck), a collection compiled by Dr. Robert Byck, Cocaine Papers by Sigmund Freud (New York: Stonehill Publishing, 1974), reacts to the emerging cocaine culture of the 1970s and resuscitates Freud as a father of modern "psycho-pharmacology."
14. Ernest Jones' quasi-official biography, The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud, ch. 6, "The Cocaine Episode [1884-1887]," dismisses the "episode" as a minor digression in Freud's larger career.
15. E. M. Thorton's The Freudian Fallacy: Freud and Cocaine (London: Palladin, rev. ed. 1986; original 1983 version was titled simply Freud and Cocaine), was written after Fliess' letters appeared. It shows Freud's enduring interest in the drug, sees cocaine as a big personal issue in his life, and, in a polemical vein, reads the 1890s theory of psychoanalysis as a product of Freud's drug-induced sexualized or messianic thinking.
16. For a fanciful reading of Freud's relation to Peru, see Curtis Marez, Drug Wars: The Political Economy of Drug Wars (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004), ch. 6.
17. David C. Courtwright, Forces of Habit: Drugs and the Making of the Modern World (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002)
18. Wolfgang Schivelbusch, Tastes of Paradise: A Social History of Spices, Stimulants, and Intoxicants (New York: Vintage Books, 1992)
19. Jordan Goodman, Tobacco in History: The Cultures of Dependence (London: Routledge U.K., 1993)
20. Michael Coe and Sophie Coe, The True History of Chocolate (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1996)
21. Rudi Matthee, "Exotic Substances: The Introduction and Global Spread of Tobacco, Coffee, Tea, and Distilled Liquor, 16th-18th Centuries," ch. 2 in Roy Porter and M. Teich, eds., Drugs and Narcotics in History (Cambridge, UK.: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
22. See Gagliano, Coca Prohibition, ch. 3, for debates. Goodman, Tobacco in History has a studied comparison of tobacco with coca (pp. 49-51). Not all of Goodman's arguments are convincing, since mastication was no stranger than smoking for Europeans and chocolate and tobacco also came loaded with American cosmological significance.
23. A fine source on developments (title aside) is Joseph Kennedy, Coca Exotica: The Illustrated Story of Cocaine (New York: Cornwall Books, 1985), chs. 6-8.
24. See W. Golden Mortimer, M.D., History of Coca: "The Divine Plant" of the Incas (New York: J. H. Vail & Co., 1901; repr. FitzHugh Ludlow Memorial Library, San Francisco, 1974).
25. See P. Gootenberg, ed., Cocaine: Global Histories (London: Routledge U.K., 1999) for nineteenth-century networks.
26. Joseph F. Spillane, Cocaine: From Medical Marvel to Modern Menace in the United States, 1884-1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), in chapters 2-4 presents a discerning analysis of the era's cocaine medicine
27. (cf Steven B. Karch, M.D., A Brief History of Cocaine, Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1998).
28. On the era's mass coca culture, see Mark Pendergrast, For God, Country and Coca-Cola: The Unauthorized History of the World's Most Popular Soft Drink (New York: Scribner, 1993), ch. 2.
29. Byck, Cocaine Papers, ch. 15, "Uber Coca."
30. Arnold J. Bauer, Goods, Power, History: Latin America's Material Culture (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), ch. 5.
31. For the era's technological nationalism, see Paul Gootenberg, Imagining Development: Economic Ideas in Peru's 'Fictitious Prosperity' of Guano, 1840-1880 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 103-11.
32. Lissón left this striking commodity discourse in 1886: "Today they demand it [coca] in Europe in large quantities, which no doubt will continue to expand when adopted for their workers and soldiers. It is and has to be a rich and vibrant article of our national exportation, which can advantageously replace even sugar... in the midst of our penury, science has opened a new source of public wealth, giving value to one of our natural resources. To coca, like our mines, we should dedicate ourselves above all else to alleviate our misery ... since we will be the suppliers to all humanity in this area. Coca will amass capital when cultivated on a large scale and provide us economic renown and respectability" (trans. from Carlos Lissón, Breves apuntes sabre la sociología del Perú en 1886 [Lima: Imp. Gil, 1887], 20, 63, 67).
33. See also Mariano Sánchez Albornoz, Breves apuntes sabre las regiones Amazónicas (Lima: Imp. del Progreso, 1885), 36-37,
34. and José G. Clavero, El tesoro del Perú (Lima: Imp. De Torre Aguirre, 1896), 46 -47.
35. Mortimer, "Divine Plant" (1901)
36. Angelo Mariani, Coca Erythroxylon (Vin Mariani): Its Uses in the Treatment of Disease (Paris and New York: Mariani & Co., 1886, 4th ed.)
37. Luis Esteves, Breves apuntes para la historia económica del Perú en 1883 (Lima: Imp. Huallaga, 1883), 73-75.
38. See Gagliano, Coca Debates, ch. 6, on anti-coca indigenistas.
39. For the 1920s-1930s medical exemplar of Dr. Carlos F. Paz Soldin, see Paul Gootenberg, "Reluctance or Resistance?: Constructing Cocaine (Prohibitions) in Peru," in Gootenberg, ed., Cocaine, 56-62.
40. For the conundrum of this split nationalism, Mark Thumer, "Peruvian Genealogies of History and Nation," in M. Thumer and A. Guerrero, eds., After Spanish Rule: Postcolonial Predicaments in the Americas (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003), ch. 6.
41. For comparable analysis of transnational modernity, see Deborah Poole, Vision, Race, and Modernity: A Visual Economy of the Andean Image World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997)
42. also, Leoncio López-Ocon Cabrera, "El nacionalismo y los orígenes de la Sociedad Geográfica de Lima," in Cueto, Saberes andinos, 109-25. JoAnn Kawell first alerted me to a "nationalist" element in Peruvian cocaine science.
43. Gagliano, Coca Debates, 82-83
44. Kennedy, Coca Exotica, 53
45. Cueto, Excelencia científica, 39-42
46. H. Unánue, "Disertación sobre coca...," Museo Erudito (Cuzco), 3, 1-7 (15 Apr.-15 June 1837). During the 1940s, anti-coca scientists (e.g., Marroquín) returned to the lime thesis, this time to prove Indians imbibed dangerous dosages of cocaine.
47. "La Coca Peruana," La Gaceta Médica de Lima 3, 51 (31 Oct. 1858), 60
48. A. Raimondi, "Elementos de botánica aplicada a la medicina y a la industria," 264 (15 Jan. 1868), 125.
49. For Freud (and also Unánue) citations see Byck, Cocaine Papers, 55, 69
50. Kennedy, Coca Exotica, 61-62, "Revista Médica de Paris - T. Moreno y Maíz," Gaceta Médica de Lima 6, 129 (31 Jan. 1862)
51. esp. "De la Coca" 6, 141 (31 July 1862)
52. Dr. Tomás Moreno y Maíz, "Sobre el 'Erythroxylum Coca' del Perú, y sobre la 'Cocaína"' Investigaciones químico-fisiológicas, La Gaceta Médica (2d ser.) 2, 8-18 (26 Feb. 1876) (Thesis, orig. 1868, Paris, E. Elmore, trans.), 58-142
53. T. Moreno y Maíz, Recherches Chimques et Physiologiques sur L'erythroxylum Coca du Pérou et la Cocaine (Paris: L. Leclerc Ed., 1868)
54. Juan Capello, "Clamor coca" 7, 2 (31 Aug. 1862). If Bignon has been slighted by history, Moreno y Maíz more so;
55. though he was reputedly a leading military surgeon he is barely mentioned in Juan Lastres' authoritative survey, Historia de la medicina peruana (Lima: UNMSM, 195 1), vol. 3, "La medicina en la República."
56. M. A. Fuentes, Memoire sur le coca do Pérou... (Paris: Ad. Lame et Havard, 1866), 7.
57. See Cueto, Excelencia científica, 45-46, on French influences. Fuentes, a key intellectual influence in Lima, knew and apparently loved coca, which shows up playfully in the title of his later sardonic Hojas de coca: Colección de artículos... (Lima: Imp. de Estado, 1877): "Aqui entra una explicación: La coca merece todos los elogios que han predigado, desde el tiempo de los Incas (nuestros antesesores) y mucho más que yo le produque el dia o noche que este en vena..." (t.1, p.31).
58. J. J. von Tschudi, Travels in Peru, During the Years 1838-42... (London: D. Bogue, 1846), 450.
59. On Raimondi, see Giovanni Bonfiglio, Antonio Raimondi: El mensaje vigente (Lima: Banco de Crédito del Perú, 2004).
60. On Copello, Fuentes, and El Nacional, see Gootenberg, Imagining Development, 64-70, 163-81.
61. José A. de los Rios, "La Coca Peruana," (Thesis, Licenciatura y Doctor en la Facultad de Medicina," orig. Mar. 1866), Gaceta Médica de Lima 12, 256 (15 Sept. 1867), 26-28
62. extended bio-obituary in La Crónica Médica 17, 278 (31 July 1900)
63. A. Raimondi, "Elementos de botánica aplicada..." 13, 264 (15 Jan. 1868), 125.
64. Farmacología, Eduardo Nuñez del Prado, "Estudio sobre la coca," Gaceta Médica de Lima, 1, 29-35 (all 30 Oct. 11 Dec. 1875). One might read Nuñez's 1875 essay as early commercial spying on the only rival coca-growing culture.
65. Cueto, Excelencia científica (1989)
66. for older survey, Carlos A. Bambarén, "La medicina en el primer centenario de la República," La Crónica Médica (1921), 189-221.
67. For biographical details, not wholly accurate, see Tejeda Barba, "Talento olvidado."
68. Less useful is Vallejos Santoni, "Estudios científicos sobre coca," from Actas of Primer Congreso Farmacéutico Peruano (May 1943).
69. Quote from Lastre, Historia de la medicina, vol. 3, 175-76. I located two rather uninformative Bignon wills in Lima (Archivo Nacional del Perú, Testimonios [M. Iparraguirre], A. Bignon, 8 June 1889 [112.v], 25 June 1895 [126.v]).
70. These "free" academies were in part a reaction to President Iglesia's wartime intervention in San Marcos University. For commissions, "Comisión nombrada para estudiar el procedimiento del Sr. A. Bignon..." El Monitor Médico, 1,2 (15 June 1885) (versions in Anales Universitaros del Perú, and Boletín de la Academía Libre de Medicina, session 18 Mar. 1885)
71. and "Informe sobre la coca," La Crónica Médica, 6, 6, 1889 - orig. 31 Oct. 1888).
72. As associations, see Martín Monsalve, "Civilized Society and the Public Sphere in Multiethnic Societies: Struggles over Citizenship in Lima, Peru (1850-1880)," Ph.D. thesis in History, Stony Brook University, 2005; Monsalve's ch. 7 stresses racial and disciplinary discourses of medical societies.
73. "Informe de la comisión nombrada para estudiar el procedimiento del Sr. Bignon para extraer la cocaína," Boletín de la Academia Libre de Medicina de Lima (session 13 Mar. 1885), 77-86 (rare copies from U.S. National Library of Medicine)
74. also notes, 12 Jan. 1885. Crónica Médica 2, 18 (June 1885), introduction "La cocaína," by chemist Andrés Muñoz;
75. and Monitor Médico 1, 2 (15 June 1885), "Informe de la comisión"
76. A. Bignon, "Nuevo método para la extracción de algunos de los alcaloídes," Monitor Médico 1, 4 (Oct. 1885), 191-93.
77. Sr. A. Bignon, Comunicación: "Acción fisiológica de la cocaína," Monitor Médico 2, 8 (15 Sept. 1886), 117-20, Trabajos Nacionales - "Acción fisiológica de la cocaína"
78. and "Cocaína y sus sales," Monitor Médico 11, 8 (Dec. 1886), 231
79. Terapéutica: "Propiedades de la coca y la cocaína," Monitor Médico 245-46 (Feb. 1886).
80. Comunicación: "Posología de la cocaína," Boletín de la Academia Libre, 1 Apr. 1886, 306-11.
81. Most with versions in Boletín de la Academia Libre (some with discrepant dates), that is, "Acción fisiológica..." (session 4 May 1886), 319-39
82. the twenty-page version, followed by "Comunicación: Sobre la acción fisológica..." (15 June 1886).
83. Unlike Freud, who waxed about cocaine's pleasurable and energizing effects, and who may have become dependent on it, Bignon never discusses subjective details. A. Bignon, Trabajos Nacionales, "Estudio experimental del antagonismo de la estricnina y de la cocaína," Monitor Médico 11, 14 (15 Dec. 1886) (orig. Sept. session).
84. On coca extracts, ads, patents of Velázquez (a leading Lima pharmacy teacher), Academia Libre de Medicina 24 (Feb. 1887), "Preparaciones: Andina - Licor de los Andes."
85. On coca circuits, see Paul Gootenberg, "Secret Ingredients: The Politics of Coca in U.S.-Peruvian Relations, 1915-65," Journal of Latin American Studies 36, 2 (May 2004).
86. Marijke Giswijt-Hofstra and Roy Porter, eds., Cultures of Neurasthenia: From Beard to the First World War (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2001).
87. Manuel M. Espinosa, Ensayo esperimental sabre el Erythroxylum Koca (Doctoral thesis, Buenos Aires: Pablo Conti, 1875), a rare ninety-page work found in New York Academy of Medicine. Buenos Aires had migrant coca users.
88. Chilean Revista Médica de Chile (vol. XV, 1886-1887) also has original studies: For example, Gabriel Covarrubias, Memorias, "Estudio sobre el muriato de cocaine," discusses Bignon's work (pp. 60-119).
89. For Mexico, Vicente Gómez y Couto, La Coca: Estudio fisiológico y terapéutico (Mexico: Imp. de Comercio, 1876) is another published medical thesis reflecting coca's role in the Latin American Pharmacopoeia.
90. Bignon's forgotten analogue of "excellence on the periphery" may have been Enrique Pizzi, an Italian pharmacist teaching in La Paz, Bolivia, rumored to have made cocaine in situ in 1857 (at behest of vn Tschudi) shortly before both Gaedecke's contested try (1858) and Niemann's successful isolation (1860). Wöhler's test of Pizzi's preparation falsified it.
91. Cited as fact in some Bolivian texts, we know nothing about Pizzi: "Cocaine in 1857," The Chemist and Druggist (London), 27 (Mar. 1886), 226
92. Mortimer, History of Coca, 294
93. Kennedy, Coca Exotica, 55.
94. A. Bignon, Comunicación, "Sobre la ultilidad de la cocaína en cólera," Boletín de la Academia Libre de Medicina, Jan. 1887, 128-32
95. "Soluciónes de cocaína" (session 6 Apr. 1887), 198-99 (published Feb. 1888).
96. Sigmund Freud, "Craving for and Fear of Cocaine" (July 1887) in Byck, Cocaine Papers, ch. 15.
97. Sr. Bignon, "Pureza terapéutica de los medicamentos," Boletin de la Academia Libre de Medicina (session 1, Apr. 1886), 311-13
98. "Informe sobre la coca," Crónica Médica 6, 6 (1889). San Marcos University, Escuela de Medicina Library (Av. Gran), thesis catalogue (Mercado's thesis is interesting in light of 1888 Coca Commission, below).
99. For a remarkable later French example, see Dr. N. S. Lambruschini, La cocaine et ses dangers (Paris: Lib. Picart, 1936). This is a Parisian medical thesis by a Huánuco native and ex-student of Peru's fervent anti-coca psychologist Hermilio Valdizán (a gift of the nonagenarian author, 1997).
100. In the twentieth century, local scientific activity around cocaine and coca resurfaces, especially during Peru's modern Indian coca-chewing debate of the 1920-1950s. It evolved as a struggle: The San Marcos pharmacology school of Dr. Carlos Gutiérrez-Noriega essentially regarded coca as a degenerating poisoning or addiction of highland natives, and their position evoked more nuanced national scientific responses from the "Andean biology" school of Dr. Carlos Monge. The latter had an impact on the visiting late-1940s United Nations "Commission of Enquiry on the Coca-Leaf." See Gagliano, Coca Prohibition, ch. 7
101. or Cueto, Excelencia cientifica, ch. 5. More recently, Peruvian doctors have studied local cocaine addiction (basuca), with wide repercussions, especially Raúl Jeri in the 1970s, who actually began his career in the 1940s anti-coca movement.
102. Sección Editorial, "La cocaína," Crónica Médica 2, 18 (15 June 1885), 61-66
103. A. Butler, "La cocaína en las quemaduras," Crónica Médica 2, 16 (Apr. 1885): The origins of female-gendered cocaine is a mystery (as in later Pichicata, or "white lady"), though in Spanish both nouns are feminine (la cocaína, la chinchona).
104. "La cocaína de Bignon," Monitor Médico 1, 5 (Aug. 1885), 100
105. also Tejeda Barba, Talento olvidado, 613 (date of 1883 mistaken).
106. For a reading of Freud's cocaine work as careerist, rather than a serious scientific venture, see Jones, Life of Freud, ch. 6.
107. This view is contested by Byck. On the Parisian Freud, see Thorton, Freudian Fallacy, chs. 3-6.
108. "Crossing paths," perhaps in the sense fictionalized by Nicolas Meyer in The Seven-Per-Cent Solution (New York: Ballentine Books, 1975), the popular novel (and a film) that explores the shared cocaine obsessions and investigative strategies of "Sherlock Holmes" and Freud (the titular percentage is how much cocaine Holmes uses by syringe).
109. A sample of references to or articles by Bignon: Mortimer, History of Coca (1901), 304, 311, 433
110. "Preparation of Cocaine," The American Druggist (St. Louis), Jan. 1886, 11 (which questions Bignon's "87-hour" soaking), repr. from Revista Farmacéutica, Buenos Aires;
111. "Cocaine Factory in Lima," 1888, 105
112. "Note on Cocaine," Dec. 1886 (on Bignon's alleged patents, from the German).
113. A. Bignon, "Cocaine as a Dental Anaesthetic," New York Medical Journal 594, 1886
114. orig. 1 May 1886, Nouveaux Remedes
115. "Note on the Properties of Coca and Cocaine," The Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions 16 (1885), 265-66
116. "Cocaine as a Antidote to Strychnine," New York Medical Journal 198, Aug. 1887, from German version;
117. William Martindale, a leading British pharmacist, elaborates on Bignon's methods in Coca, Cocaine and Its Salts (London: H. K. Lewis, 1886), 53
118. E. M. Pozzi-Escot, "Recherches sur l'industrie de la cocaine au Pérou," Bulletin des sciences pharmacologie, 615-16, 1913 (French chemist, like Bignon ends up teaching in Lima).
119. Emma Reens, "La Coca de Java: Monographic historique botanique, chimique et pharmacologique," Ph.D. thesis, University of Paris, 1919, now published as "Java Coca," in Steven B. Karch, M.D.,
120. comp., A History of Cocaine: The Mystery of Coca Java and the Kew Plant (London: Royal Society of Medicine Press, 2003), ch. 5
121. see pp. 75-76, on backward "Bignon technique" (editor's comment, pp. 50-51, based on my own Bignon research).
122. On German agents, see H. Richard Friman, "Germany and the Transformation of Cocaine, 1880-1920," in Gootenberg, Cocaine, 86-87
123. Spillane, Cocaine, 50-54. T. Holtzer kindly provided me with 1903 data from the Boehringer-Mannheim Archives.
124. Cocaine as "commodity chains" (with flows of science), in P. Gootenberg, "Cocaine in Chains: The Rise and Demise of a Global Commodity, 1860-1950," in Z. Frank, C. Marichal, and S. Topik, eds., From Silver to Cocaine: Latin American Commodity Chains and the Building of the World Economy, 1500-2000 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006), 321-51.
125. I prefer viewing in "commodity" terms because of the specific linkage to cocaine. An alternative spatial conception is Mary Louise Pratt's transnational "contact zone," analyzed as scientific nationalism by Claudio Lomnitz, in "Nationalism's Dirty Linen: 'Contact Zones' Prats, and the Topography of National Identity," in his Deep Mexico, Silent Mexico: An Anthropology of Nationalism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2001), ch. 6.
126. On French and German medical currents, see John Parascandola, The Development of American Pharmacology (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992)
127. or generally W. F. Bynum, Science and the Practice of Medicine in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
128. Also relevant are Lynn Payer, Medicine and Culture: Varieties of Treatments in the United States, England, West Germany, and France (New York: Penguin Books, 1989)
129. and Arthur A. Daemmrich, Pharmacopolitics: Drug Regulation in the United States and Germany (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004).
130. "Correspondencia," 14 Oct. 1885, to Monitor Médico 1, 10, 193-94. Advertisements permeate Lima medical journals from 1885-1890.
131. "Informe: La cocaína y sus sales preparadas por Meyer y Hafemann," session 7 Dec. 1885, Boletín de Academia Libre de Medicina, 265-68
132. also session 30 July. "Cocaína y sus sales," Monitor Médico 1, 7 (15 Sept. 1885), 193-94.
133. Clavero, Tesoro del Perú, 47 (Prüss). Overseas journals noted initial crude cocaine exports in 1885 (see note 36).
134. Bignon,"Acción fisiológica de la cocaína," Monitor Médico 2, 8 (Sept. 1886), 120
135. "Informe sobre la coca," Crónica Médica 6, 6 (1889), 28-31.
136. E. R. Squibb, "Hydrochorate of Cocaine, or Muriate of Cocaine," Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions 15 (Mar. 1885), 774-76
137. "The Preparation of Cocaine," New York Chemical and Drug Reporter, 26 Nov. 1894, 21.
138. See later Peruvian medical journals (esp. La Crónica Médica, late 1880s-1890s advertisements) for foreign drugs; for Bignon's ex-business see "Peru": Yearbook of Foreign Trade, Exporters - Importers, Merchants (Lima: Compañia Peruana de Negocios Internacionales S.A.), listing 53.
139. Parascandola, American Pharmacology;
140. Bynum, Science and Medicine, ch. 4.
141. Marcos Cueto July 2005 personal communication. This is logical since the 1920s generation (i.e., Gutiérrez-Noriega and peers) was driven by the notion that Indian coca use was a form of "cocaine-addiction" or "toximania," thus erasing all chemical, biological, or social distinctions between coca-leaf and alkaloidal cocaine. See Carlos Gutérrez-Noriega and Vicente Zapata Cruz, Estudios sabre la coca y la cocaina en el Perú (Lima: Ministerio de Educación, 1947), which, incidentally, despite its title, fails to cite Bignon. I have found only one modern anti-coca essay that cites Bignon. "Ignored" is indeed the apt term: I have scoured classic sources on Peruvian medical history (Valdizán y Maldonado, etcetera) without finding reference to Bignon. The exception is Lastre's canonical Historia de la medicina, which contains a half-page, respectful biography (vol. 3, 175-76), on Bignon's "puesto destacado" in Peruvian pharmacy. In a discussion of José de los Ríos, Lastre refers to Bignon as republican Peru's most "brilliant chemist" (270).
142. Dr. Angel Maldonado's nineteenth-century survey, "La farmacia en el Perú" (I Congreso de Farmacia Peruana - La Reforma Médica, 1943) omits Bignon altogether.
143. Closer to his own time, Bignon was recognized: A published 1918 San Marcos chemistry thesis by later professor Manuel Vinelli, Contribución al estudio de la coca (Lima: Imp. San Pedro, 1918) lauds "the labor of Bignon, so fertile in the fields of chemistry and pharmacy, his vast scientific training, his enthusiasm for national science... [as well as] his vital discoveries recognized in Europe..." (26).
144. "Informe sobre la coca," Crónica Médica 6, 6 (1889), 28-31 (report dated 31 Oct. 1888)
145. Asuntos Generales: "Informe sobre la coca," Anales Universitarios vols. 15 -16 (24 July 1888), 256-57, forwarded in Dec. 1888 to Minister of Education for dissemination.
146. "Cocaine in Peru," The Chemist and Druggist, 29 May 1886 (also 17 Oct. 1904)
147. "Crude Cocaine," Journal of the Society of the Chemical Industry 30 Sept. 1889
148. Augusto E. Tamayo, Informe sobre las colonias de Oxapampa y Pozuzo y los Ríos Palcuzu y Pichis (Lima: Imp. Liberal Unión, 1904), 111-13 (with blueprint of Kitz's factory).
149. Spillane, Cocaine, ch. 3.
150. For Peru's boom, see P. Gootenberg, "Making a National Commodity: Peruvian 'Crude Cocaine' (1885-1910)," MS, New York, 2006.
151. Link in Natalia Sobrevilla, "La creación de la colonia de Pozuzo," in Giovanno Bonfiglio, ed., La presencia europea en el Perú (Lima: Fondo Editorial del Congreso, 2001), 117, and chs. 2-3, a good source on cultivated foreigners in Peru.
152. Karl D. C. Scherzer, Narrative of the Circumvention of the Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara (London: Saunders, Oatley and Co., 1861), vol. 3, 409.
153. For references to Bignon-Kitz, see E. M. Pozzi-Escot, "Recherches sur l'industrie de la cocaine an Pérou," Bull pharmacologie 20 (1913), 608-17
154. (Bignon on p. 615)
155. "La Fabricación de cocaína en Huánuco" (Luzio, n. 37, p. 45)
156. Binda, p. 377)
157. Emile R. Pilli, "The Coca Industry of Peru" MS., N. J. Merck, 1943, in DEA Library), 40
158. ("Crude Cocaine Manufacture," 39-47).
159. "Mr. Clements R. Markham, FRS, Coca Cultivation," Chemist and Druggist 17 Mar. 1894, esp. "An Uncommercial Coca-Lecture" (387-88).
160. On lags, see Pedro Paulet, "Industrias: La cocaína," Boletín del Ministerio de Fomento 1903, 25-42, written as French consul, with a range of cocaine methods including Pfeiffer's elaboration of Bignon and ecognine extraction;
161. Alfredo Rabines, "The Production of Cocaine in Peru," Peru To-day [a journal pub. in Lima] 1911: 31-33"
162. Féderico Luzio, "Tecnología: La fabricación de cocaína en Huánuco," Agronomía 3, 15 (1943), 44-54
163. Dante Binda A., "La Cocaína: Problema industrial del Perú,"Actas y trabajos del segundo congreso peruano del química Oct. 1943, 1, 375-79.
164. On "Protochronisms," see Katherine Verdery, National Identity under Socialism: Identity and Cultural Politics in Ceausescu's Romana (Berkeley: University of California press, 1991), 197-68.
165. I am speculating here, for as the DEA soon learned, there are many ways to make cocaine. But this link (and chemical equivalence) of cocaine sulfates to coca paste and more oxidized cocaine base (pbc) is confirmed by Finnish graduate student Jyri J. Soininen (personal communication, July 2006) who on my query interviewed relevant chemists, including ex-DEA specialist Casale, cited below. For the rise of illicit trades, see Paul Gootenberg, "Birth of the Nares: The First Illicit Cocaine Flows in the Americas, 1947-64," MS., New York, 2004.
166. For the U.S.-Andean chain in long perspective, P. Gootenberg, "Between Coca and Cocaine: A Century or More of U.S.-Peruvian Drug Paradoxes, 1860-1980," Hispanic American Historical Review 83,1 (Feb. 2003), 119-50.
167. For a few of many recipes, see U.S. National Archives, Record Group 170 (FBN/DEA, Foreign Countries), Durkin to Giordano, Cocaine: "Process for Manufacture of Cocaine Paste" (of "Information furnished by detained traffickers"), Mar. 1966
168. John T. Maher, "Erythroxylon Coca: A Lecture," DEA National Training Institute, Sept. 1976 (DEA Library)
169. J. F. Casale and R.F.X. Klein, "Illicit Production of Cocaine," Forensic Science Review 5, 2 (Dec. 1993), 95-107.
170. Anthropologists also work on this problem: Edmundo Morales, Cocaine: White Gold Rush in Peru (Tucson:UNiversity of Arizona Press, 1989), ch. 4, for techniques; p. 75 suggests peasants learned from "some Germans" three generations prior to 1980s (during the Kitz era?).
171. Juan Cajas, El truquito y la maroma, cocaína, traquetos y pistolocos en Nueva York: Una antropología de la incertidumbre y lo prohibido (Mexico: CONACULTA-INAH 2004), 60, where contemporary dealer informants link sulfates to making cocaine. Richard Kernaghan, a Columbia University ethnographer, finds Huallaga peasants, in a twist of historical amnesia, claim "Colombians" taught them techniques (personal communication, May 2005).