Between coca and cocaine: A century or more of U.S.-Peruvian drug paradoxes, 1860-1980

HAHR - Hispanic American Historical Review

Volumn 83, Issue 1, 2003, Pages 119-150

  Gootenberg, Paul ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 2542427786     PISSN: 00182168     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1215/00182168-83-1-119     Document Type: Review

References (95)

1. And largely unknown: this essay is part of a larger archival project to unveil this hidden history. For the United States itself, we now have the superb study by Joseph F. Spillane, Cocaine: From Medical Marvel to Modern Menace in the United States, 1884-1920 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1999)
2. for global views, see Paul Gootenberg, ed., Cocaine: Global Histories (London: Routledge, 1999)
3. as background, Steven B. Karch, M.D., A Brief History of Cocaine (Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1998)
4. For a feel for this new international history, try recent anthologies: Gilbert Joseph, Catherine LeGrand, and Ricardo Salvatore, eds., Close Encounters of Empire: Writing the Culture History of U.S.-Latin American Relations (Durham: Duke Univ. Press, 1998)
5. Amy Kaplan and Donald Pease, eds., Cultures of United States Imperialism (Durham: Duke Univ. Press, 1993)
6. and Frederick Cooper and Ann Stoller, eds., Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1997)
7. For analysis of "constructionism" in drug studies, see Gootenberg, "Cocaine: The Hidden Histories," in Gootenberg, Cocaine: Global Histories, 7-8, 13. The many sources for this view range from anthropology (classical ethnobotany) to the behavioral drug "set and setting" school of Norman Zinberg, to today's post-structuralism
8. Colleagues, my apologies: in this essay I will occasionally fall into the corny misnomer "American" to describe North Americans or United States policy. See Mark Pendergrast, For God, Country, and Coca-Cola (New York: Scribner, 1993), chap. 2, for American culture of coca
9. W. Golden Mortimer, History of Coca: "The Divine Plant" of the Incas (New York, 1901, reprinted Fitzhugh Ludlow Memorial Library, San Francisco, 1974)
10. W. S. Searle, M.D., A New Form of Nervous Disease Together with an Essay on Erythroxylon Coca (New York: Fords, Howard & Hulbert, 1881)
11. Tom Lutz, American Nervousness 1903: An Anecdotal History (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1991)
12. H. H. Rusby, Jungle Memories (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1933), chaps. 1 and 8
13. U.S. Navy, "Report on Coca or Cuca," Sanitary and Medical Reports (Washington) 1875: 675-76
14. Consul-Gen. Gibbs, "The Coca Plant," Leonard's Illustrated Medical Journal, April 1886
15. C. J. DuPré, Consuls of the U.S., 78, May 1887, cited in American Druggist 16, no. 9 (1887)
16. Mark Twain, "The Turning-Point in My Life," 1910, in J. Strausbaugh and D. Blaise, eds., The Drug User (New York: Blast Books, 1991), 148-50
17. For "Wallersteinian" structural commodity-chain approach, see Gary Gereffi and Miguel Korzeniewitz, eds., Commodity Chains and Global Capitalism (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1994)
18. for an anthropological transnational approach linking power and cultures, try Sidney Mintz's Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (New York: Viking Penguin, 1985)
19. Richard Friman, "Germany and the Transformation of Cocaine," in Gootenberg, ed., Cocaine: Global Histories
20. Robert Byck, M.D., comp., The Cocaine Papers by Sigmund Freud (New York: Stonewall Books, 1974)
21. J. C. Ulloa, N. Colunga, and J. de los Ríos, "Informe sobre la coca," La Crónica Médica (Lima) 1889: 27-31
22. Carlos Lissón, Breves apuntes sobre la sociología del Perú en 1886 (Lima: Imp. Gil, 1887), 63-69
23. Mariano Albornoz, Breves apuntes sobre la región amazónica (Lima: Imp. El Progreso, 1885), 36-37
24. On national science, see Marcos Cueto, Excelencia científica en la periferia (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1989)
25. Gootenberg, "Rise and Shine of a National Commodity" (a study based on Huánuco regional archives)
26. see also Alejandro Garland, El Perú en 1906 (Lima: Imp. del Estado, 1907), 180-82, 213, for sector. If highly esteemed and of rapid initial growth, coca/cocaine never exceeded 5 percent of the era's national exports. These branded varieties of export coca should not be confused with true botanical varieties, which sparked countless controversies in the nineteenth century
27. Gootenberg, Imagining Development: Economic Ideas in Peru's "Fictitious Prosperity" of Guano (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1993)
28. a notion developed also in JoAnn Kawell, "The Essentially Peruvian Industry," unpublished ms., Berkeley, Calif., 1997
29. David F. Musto, M.D., The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1973)
30. and "America's First Cocaine Epidemic," Wilson Quarterly (Summer 1989)
31. another cyclical view is David T. Courtwright, "The Rise and Fall of Cocaine in the United States," in Jordan Goodman, Paul E. Lovejoy, and Andrew Sherratt, eds., Consuming Habits: Drugs in History and Anthropology (London: Routledge, 1995)
32. Pendergrast, God and Coca-Cola, chap 7
33. See also Alan A. Block, "The Snowman Cometh: Coke in Progressive New York," Criminology 17, no. 1 (May 1979): 75-99 - archives from Jerusalem (of the New York Kehillah) shed light on illicit cocaine in the teens
34. For its cultural impact, see Marek Kohn's remarkable Dope Girls: The Birth of the British Drug Underground (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1992)
35. From study of U.S. Treasury, Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN), annual reports, "Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs," 1926-1940s
36. Richard Ashley, Cocaine: Its History, Uses, and Effects (New York: St. Martin's, 1975), chap. 12
37. on cultural flows, see Joseph Kennedy, Coca Exotica: The Illustrated History of Cocaine (New York: Cornwall Books, 1985), chap. 12
38. or H. Richard Friman's comparative NarcoDiplomacy: Exporting the U.S. War on Drugs (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1996), esp. chaps. 2-3
39. See Great Britain, PRO, The Opium Trade, 1910-1941 (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1974) for big diplomacy
40. For U.S. roles, see Arnold H. Taylor, American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Trade (Durham: Duke Univ. Press, 1969), chaps. 2-4
41. updated in McAllister, Drug Diplomacy
42. Marcel De Kort, "Doctors, Diplomats, and Businessmen: Conflicting Interests in the Netherlands and Dutch East Indies, 1860-1950," in Gootenberg, Cocaine: Global Histories
43. for a Peruvian optic on Java, see M. E. Derteano, "Informe sobre la coca en la isla de Java," Boletín del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores 1919 (Hong Kong, but dated May 1914)
44. Steven B. Karch, M.D., "Japan and the Cocaine Industry of Southeast Asia, 1860-1944," in Gootenberg, Cocaine: Global Histories
45. for the Peruvian link, see Isabel Lausent-Herrera, "La presencia japonesa en el eje Huánuco-Pucalpa entre 1918 y 1982," Revista Geográfica (Mexico) 107 (1988): 93-118
46. "Japanese Quietly Exporting Cocaine from Interior of Peru," The Christian Science Monitor, 12 Aug. 1922
47. On Coca-Cola's various roles, see Gootenberg, "Secret Ingredients: The Politics of Coca in U.S.-Peruvian Relations, 1915-1965" (New York, 2002, ms.)
48. Joseph Gagliano, Coca Prohibition in Peru: The Historical Debates (Tucson: Univ. of Arizona Press, 1994), esp. chap. 6 (and orig. texts, Valdizán to Saenz)
49. S. Lorente and B. Caravedo, "Bases fundamentales para la organización de la defensa social contra la toximanía" (Peruvian Ministry of Health) (paper presented at the VIII Conferencia Sanitaria Pan-Americano, Lima, 12-20 Oct. 1927)
50. see JoAnn Kawell, "Going to the Source" (Berkeley, Calif., 1997, ms.), chap. 16, on the split of coca/cocaine
51. see also Carlos Bües (one of many coca reformers), La coca: Apuntes sobre la planta, beneficio, enfermidades y aplicación (Lima: Ministerio de Fomento, 1911)
52. Paz Soldán's polemic is followed in La Reforma Médica (Lima) 1929-1939
53. see also "El problema médico social de la coca en el Perú," Mercurio Peruana 19 (Lima) 1929
54. and La coca peruana: Memorandum sobre su situación actual (Lima: Sociedad Nacional Agraria, 1936)
55. Jill Jonnes, Hep-Cats, Narcs, and Pipe-Dreams: A History of America's Romance with Illegal Drugs ( Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1997), part 2 (not as "hep" a book as the title suggests)
56. for desperate postwar drug cultures, try William S. Burroughs and Allen Ginsberg, The Yage Letters (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1975 [1953-63])
57. Jay Stevens, Storming Heaven: LSD and the American Dream (New York: Perennial Library, 1988)
58. and Mickey C. Smith, Social History of the Minor Tranquilizers (New York: Pharmaceutical Products Press, 1991 [1985])
59. McAllister, Drug Diplomacy, chaps. 5-7
60. Harry J. Anslinger and William F. Tompkins, The Traffic in Narcotics (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1953), 16-18, 281
61. on Anslinger, see John C. McWilliams, The Protectors: Harry J. Anslinger and the Federal Bureau of Narcotics (Newark: Univ. of Delaware Press, 1990)
62. and Michael Miller, "Quality Stuff: Firm Is Peddling Cocaine and Deals Are Legit," Wall Street Journal, 27 Oct. 1994
63. ARH, Prefectura, Leg. 33, no. 463, Soberón, "Inventario de fábrica de cocaína," 1949
64. Peru, Acción oficial en el desarrollo agropecuario de la colonización de Tingo María (Lima, 1947)
65. UN/ESC, Annual Reports, E/NR "Peru: Annual Report for 1950" (17 Jan. 1952)
66. "Counter-Reply of the Peruvian Commission for Study of the Coca Problem" (Lima: Ministerio de Salud Pública, 1951)
67. "Peru: The White Goddess," Time, 11 April 1949
68. See Ethan Nadelmann, Cops across Borders: The Internationalization of U.S. Criminal Law Enforcement (University Park: Pennsylvania State Univ. Press, 1993) on global cops
69. From Patrick L. Clawson and Rensselaer W. Lee III, The Andean Cocaine Industry (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996), chap.1, table 1.1 and fig. 1.4
70. INTERPOL, "Traffic in Narcotic Drugs," Clandestine Laboratories, 1945-61, p. 71
71. J. F Casale and R. F. X. Klein, "Illicit Production of Cocaine," Forensic Science Review 5 (Dec. 1995) - one of a long string of related illicit "formulae"
72. see Edmundo Morales, Cocaine: White Gold Rush in Peru (Tucson: Univ. of Arizona Press, 1989), chap. 4, for peasant colonization and perception
73. INTERPOL Reports (1950s-1960s)
74. NA RG 170 (DEA) 0660 Peru and Bolivia, 1953-67
75. RG 170, Box 54, "Inter-American Conferences," 1959-66
76. NA RG 59 "Subject-Numeric" Files, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, Panama, Cuba 1963-73
77. also DEA Library, "Vertical Files" - Andean Region, Illicit Traffic, Routes (1970s)
78. DEA, "Report of the Federal Cocaine Policy Task Force" (1974)
79. Joel Phillips and Ronald Wynne, comps. Cocaine: The Mystique and the Reality (New York; Avon Books, 1980), part 4, "Cocaine Today" makes a primary document on the 1970s rebirth
80. La Trinchera (Huánuco), all 1974-75
81. Kawell and Gutiérrez reports in "Peru: The Real Green Revolution," NACLA Report on the Americas 12, no. 6 (1989)
82. Cotler, Drogas y política, part 4
83. Deborah Poole and Geraldo Renique, Peru: Time of Fear (London: Latin American Bureau/Monthly Review Press, 1992), esp. chap. 6, "Coca Capitalism and the New World Order."
84. On Colombian origins, see Jorge Orlando Melo, "The Drug Trade, Politics, and the Economy: The Colombian Experience," in Elizabeth Joyce and Carlos Malamud eds., Latin America and the Multilateral Drug Trade (London: Macmillan, 1998), 63-96
85. Francisco E. Thoumi, "Why the Illegal Psychoactive Drugs Industry Grew in Colombia," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 34, no. 3 (fall 1992): 37-64
86. A keen study of grassroot drug-war paradoxes is found in Jaime Malamud-Goti's Smoke and Mirrors: The Paradoxes of the Drug Wars (Boulder: Westview Press, 1992)
87. at home, see Philippe Bourgois, In Search of Respect: Selling Crack in El Barrio (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1995)
88. Larry Rohter, "A Web of Drugs and Strife in Colombia," New York Times, 21 April 2000; predictably, Colombian coca has growing alkaloidal strength, and cocaine processing is becoming far more efficient
89. pressures on Colombia are also leading to a rebound of coca cultivation in Peru, see, e.g., Juan Ferrero, "Farmers in Peru Are Turning Again to Coca Crop," New York Times, 14 Feb. 2002
90. U.S. Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (Washington, D.C.: March 2000)
91. Andrew Weil, "The New Politics of Coca," The New Yorker, 15 May 1995, 70-80
92. "United States: Punishment and Prejudice: Racial Disparities in the War on Drugs," in Human Rights Watch Report (New York: Human Rights Watch, June 2000) - African Americans on average suffer 8 times the white drug persecution/prosecution rate (34 times in the District of Columbia), and it's mostly about cocaine
93. The intellectual foundations for "drug wars" at home and afar are actually long dead - only their powerful politics roll on in eternal afterlife. Public guardians - if they bothered - could profit from a slew of recent books laying out the basic problem: Mike Gray, Drug Crazy: How We Got into This Mess and How We Can Get Out (New York: Random House, 1998)
94. E. Bertram et al., Drug War Politics: The Price of Denial (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1996)
95. Dan Baum, Smoke and Mirrors: The War on Drugs and the Politics of Failure (New York: Little, Brown & Co., 1996)