The "white ribbon league of nations" meets Japan: The trans-pacific activism of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, 1906-1930

Diplomatic History

Volumn 31, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 21-50

  Ogawa, Manako ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 33845580245     PISSN: 01452096     EISSN: 14677709     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7709.2007.00601.x     Document Type: Article

References (131)

1. Gauntlett Tsune, Shichijü shichinen no omoide (Tokyo, 1949; reprinted in Tokyo, 1990), 132-37.
2. I owe this analysis of the historiography of diplomacy to Michael J. Hogan. According to his categorization, notably, the interpretation of Michael H. Hunt that he cites, there are three groups of diplomatic historians. The first group puts geopolitics at the top; the second group interprets diplomacy with progressive and revisionist theories, and is concerned with connections between American diplomacy and the domestic sphere; and the third group of historians connects American diplomacy to domestic systems as well as to international circumstances. Although Hogan and Hunt understand that the third group is still nation-state centered, works of scholars I cite below give attention to state-to-state relations as well as to the connections of domestic spheres to international affairs, especially regarding U.S.-Japan relations. Harold R. Isaacs, Scratches on Our Minds: American Views of China and India (Armonk, NY, 1958); Akira Iriye, Pacific Estrangement: Japanese and American Expansion, 1897-1911 (Cambridge, MA, 1972); Akira Iriye, Power and Culture: The Japanese-American War 1941-1945 (Cambridge, MA, 1981); James Reed, The Missionary Mind and American East Asia Policy 1911-1915 (Cambridge, MA, 1983); John W. Dower, War without Mercy: Race & Power in the Pacific War (New York, 1986); Michael J. Hogan, ed., America in the World: The Historiography of American Foreign Relations since 1941 (New York, 1995), pt. 1; Mitziko Sawada, Tokyo Life, New York Dreams: Urban Japanese Vision of America, 1890-1924 (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1996); Jon Thares Davidann, A World of Crisis and Progress: The American YMCA in Japan, 1890-1930 (London, 1998); John W. Dower, Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of WWII (New York and London, 1999); Yukiko Koshiro, Trans-Pacific Racisms and the U.S. Occupation of Japan (New York, 1999); Joseph M. Henning, Outpost of Civilization: Race, Religion, and the Formative Years of American-Japanese Relations (New York and London, 2000); Amy Kaplan, The Anarchy of Empire in the Making of U.S. Culture (Cambridge, MA, 2002).
3. Works include: Harriet Hyman Alonso, Peace as a Women's Issue: A History of the U.S. Movement for World Peace and Women's Rights (Syracuse, NY, 1993); Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones, Changing Differences: Women and the Shaping of American Foreign Policy, 1917-1994 (New Brunswick, NJ, 1995); Carrie Foster, The Women and the Warriors: The U. S. Section of the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, 1915-1946 (Syracuse, NY, 1995); Leila J. Rupp, Worlds of Women: The Making of an International Women's Movement (Princeton, NJ, 1997); Linda K. Schott, Reconstructing Women's Thoughts: The Women's International League for Peace and Freedom before World War II (Stanford, CA, 1997); Nitza Berkovitch, From Motherhood to Citizenship: Women's Rights and International Organizations (Baltimore, 1999); Bonnie S. Anderson, Joyous Greetings: The First International Women's Movement, 1830-1860 (New York, 2000); Laura Wexler, Tender Violence: Domestic Visions in an Age of U.S. Imperialism (Chapel Hill, NC and London, 2000).
4. Ian Tyrell's work on international movements of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, for instance, demonstrates the interconnectedness of American and British temperance women. Ian Tyrrell, Woman's World/ Woman's Empire: The Woman's Christian Temperance Union in International Perspective, 1880-1930 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1991).
5. For a critical analysis of non-Western women in "world"women's history and international relations, see
6. Chandra Talpade Mohanty, "Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses, "Boundary 2 12, no. 3 (1984): 333-58;
7. Valerie Amos and Pratibha Parmar, "Challenging Imperial Feminism, "Feminist Review 17 (July 1984): 3-19;
8. Antonia I. Castañeda, "Women of Color and the Rewriting of Western History: The Discourse, Politics, and Decolonization of History, "Pacific Historical Review 61, no. 4 (1992): 501-34;
9. Thomas J. Prasch, "Orientalism's Other, Other Orientalisms: Women in the Scheme of Empire, "Journal of Women's History 7, no. 4 (Winter 1995): 174-88;
10. Alison M. Jagger, "Globalizing Feminist Ethics, "Hypatia 13, no. 2 (Spring 1998): 7-31;
11. Ellen DuBois, "Woman Suffrage: The View from the Pacific, "Pacific Historical Review 69, no. 4 (2000): 539-51;
12. Uma Narayan, "Essence of Culture and a Sense of History: A Feminist Critique of Cultural Essentialism, "Hypatia 13, no. 2 (Spring 1998): 97.
13. After the World's WCTU was organized and the "National"WCTU of the United States became one of its national branches, the American chapter called itself the "National"WCTU. Because this research deals with more than one "national"chapter of the WCTU, it uses "American WCTU"in order to avoid confusion.
14. As Amy Kaplan reveals, women in the United States, for example, accepted transnational works as an extension of their domestic responsibilities as home protector and attempted to extend the middle class ideology of "respectable"morality and sexuality into public life. Amy Kaplan, "Manifest Domesticity,"American Literature 70, no. 3 (September 1998): 581-606.
15. Tyrrell, Woman's World/Woman's Empire, 148, 186, 286.
16. Edward Said's Orientalism and most other studies on Orientalism primarily focus on European discourse about the colonial territories in the Middle East. Meanwhile, Mari Yoshihara and others redefine the term Orientalism specifically in reference to U.S. discourse about China and Japan. Although the United States did not take the blatant way of conquest over China and Japan, it held a predominant political and economic position over these nations through the Open Door policy, unequal treaties, and the expansion of commercial and cultural influence. In such a historical and political context, the United States had shaped Orientalist discourse. Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1978); Mari Yoshihara, Embracing the East: White Women and American Orientalism (New York, 2003), 7.
17. Ruth Bordin, Woman and Temperance: The Quest for Power and Liberty, 1873-1900 (Philadelphia, 1981), 5; Jack S. Blocker, Jr., "Give to the Winds Thy Fears": The Woman's Temperance Crusade, 1873-1874 (Westport, CT, 1985), 97-99.
18. Bordin, Woman and Temperance, 3-4; Patricia Hill, The World Their Household: The American Women's Missionary Movement and Cultural Transformation, 1870-1920 (Ann Arbor, MI, 1985), 195.
19. "Joint Report of Dr. Kate C. Bushnell and Mrs. Elizabeth Andrew,"in Minutes of the Executive Committee and Convention of the World's Woman's Christian Temperance Union (London, 1895), 182.
20. For the support of missionaries Leavitt received, see Rumi Yasutake, "Transnational Women's Activism: The Woman's Christian Temperance Union in Japan and Beyond, 1858-1920"(Ph.D. diss., University of California Los Angeles, 1998), 85-86; Elizabeth A. Dorn, "'For God, Home and Country': The Woman's Christian Temperance Union and Reform Efforts in Meiji Japan"(Ph.D. diss., University of Hawai'i, 2003), 34.
21. For more on the birth of the Japanese WCTU, see Rumi Yasutake, Transnational Women's Activism: The United States, Japan, and Japanese Immigrant Communities in California, 1859-1920 (New York, 2004), chaps. 1, 2; Dorn, For God, Home and Country, chaps. 1, 2; Manako Ogawa, "American Women's Destiny, Asian Women's Dignity: Trans-Pacific Activism of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, 1886-1945"(Ph.D. diss., University of Hawai'i, 2004), chap. 1.
22. "Letter from China, from Miss Ruth Shaffner,"in Minutes of the Second Biennial Convention and Executive Committee Meetings of the World's Woman's Christian Temperance Union, 199-205, Frances E. Willard Memorial Library, Evanston, IL (hereafter WML).
23. Wang Zheng, Women in the Chinese Enlightenment: Oral and Textual Histories (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1999), chap. 1.
24. For the controversy over the priority of temperance activism in the Japanese WCTU, see
25. Manako Ogawa, "Rescue Work for Japanese Women: The Birth and Development of the Jiaikan Rescue Home and the Missionaries of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, Japan, 1886-1921, "U.S.-Japan Women's Journal 26 (June 2004): 98-133.
26. Nihon Kirisutokyō Fujin Kyōfūkai, ed., Nihon Kirisutokyō Fujin Kyōfūkai hyakunenshi (Tokyo, 1986), 62-65.
27. Ibid., 77-78.
28. Yajima Kajiko, "Warera no shuchō,"Fujin shimpō, no. 65 (September 25, 1902): 13.
29. Mary West, "Japan's Welcome,"Union Signal (November 24, 1892): 15; World's Woman's Christian Temperance Union, W.W.C.T.U. White Ribbon Bulletin (September 1906).
30. For a discourse on maturity and hierarchical relations, see Naoko Shibusawa, America's Geisha Ally: Reimagining the Japanese Enemy (Cambridge, MA, 2006).
31. "Japan,"in Report of the Fifth Biennial Convention, 56, WML.
32. Earlier Japanese representation at the World's WCTU gatherings occurred when Japanese women who happened to be in the United States attended at the request of the Japanese Union.
33. "Thursday Evening,"Union Signal (November 8, 1906): 6.
34. Ibid.
35. "Saturday Afternoon,"Union Signal (November 8, 1906): 15.
36. "World's Convention Notes,"Union Signal (November 29, 1906): 6.
37. Ruth F. Davis and two Canadian Methodist missionaries of the Foreign Auxiliary attended the eighth conference of the World's WCTU, held in Glasgow in 1910. In 1913, Iwasawa Tokiko, a teacher of Friends School, represented the Japanese Union with two missionary women at the ninth conference in Brooklyn, New York. Thereafter, the World's WCTU conference was not held until after World War I.
38. "Sound the Jubilee!"Union Signal (December 18, 1919): 7. Later, the American Union extended its financial contribution to Malaysia, France, Belgium, Italy, the Philippines, Burma, and Palestine in order to "hasten the coming in all the world of total abstinence, prohibition, purity and peace.""To Make the World All White,"Union Signal (December 16, 1920): 7.
39. "America Sets Standards for the World,"Union Signal (July 10, 1919): 8.
40. Akira Iriye, Cultural Internationalism and World Order (Baltimore and London, 1997).
41. Anna A. Gordon, "World Prohibition, World Purity, World Peace Our International Goal,"Union Signal (November 23, 1922): 3.
42. Berkovitch, From Motherhood to Citizenship, 19-20.
43. Castañeda, "Women of Color and the Rewriting of Western History"; Rupp, Worlds of Women, 52;
44. Charlotte Weber, "Unveiling Scheherazade: Feminist Orientalism in the International Alliance of Women, 1911-1950, "Feminist Studies 27, no. 1 (Spring 2001): 138.
45. Tyrrell, Woman's World/Woman's Empire, 255.
46. A. A. Gordon, "Yajima kaitō e,"Fujin shinpō, no. 272 (March 20, 1920): 12; Anna A. Gordon, "Bankoku taikai e daiin shusseki no shōrei,"Fujin shinpō, no. 272 (March 20, 1920): 11.
47. Rupp, Worlds of Women, 77.
48. Watase Kameko, "Kokoku ni kaerite,"Fujin shinpō, no. 276 (August 10, 1920): 22-23; Yajima Kaji, "Tadaima kaerimashita,"Fujin shinpō, no. 277 (September 20, 1920): 1-2.
49. "Executive Committee Meetings,"in The Tenth Convention Report (1920), 25, WML; Julia F. Deane, "Peregrinations of the W.C.T.U. Pilgrims,"Union Signal (May 20, 1920): 5.
50. Julia F. Deane, "Who's Who at the World's W.C.T.U. Convention,"Union Signal (May 27, 1920): 4.
51. Reina Lewis, Gendering Orientalism: Race, Femininity, and Representation (London and New York, 1996); Yoshihara, Embracing the East.
52. "Woman's Christian Temperance Union of Japan Holds Helpful Convention,"Union Signal (June 23, 1921): 7.
53. Gauntlett Tsune, "Eikoku Ejinbarashi yori sokoku no shimai e,"Fujin shinpō, no. 275 (July 20, 1920): 9-10; Gauntlett Tsune, "Daijukkai Bankoku Kirisutokyō Fujin Kyōfūkai taikai hōkoku,"Fujin shinpō, no. 281 (January 20, 1921): 8-10.
54. For the geisha girl image of Orientalist discourse, see Yoshihara, Embracing the East, chap. 2.
55. Gauntlett Tsune, Shichijū shichinen no omoide, 113-17.
56. Jōdai Tano, "Jikyoku gūkan,"Fujin shinpō, no. 289 (October 10, 1921): 11-13; E. G. Owen, "The Women's Peace Association in Japan,"Japan Evangelist 32, no. 6 (June 1925): 203-5; Gauntlett, Shichijū shichinen no omoide, 127-28.
57. N. O. K. [pseudonym of Kubushiro Ochimi], "Bankoku heiwa no tame ni shisha o okuru,"Fujin shinpō, no. 289 (October 10, 1921): 1-2. Originally, the Japanese WCTU planned to encourage the American Union to lobby for the Washington conference. What motivated the Japanese to take more direct action was an appeal by Watanabe Kinzō, husband of a Union member and advisor for Ushijima Kinji (George Shima), a successful agricultural entrepreneur known as the "potato king"in California. Watanabe visited the headquarters office in Tokyo and talked about the significance of the forthcoming Washington conference. He urged the WCTU to send its representatives to express the peace-loving sentiments of the Japanese. His argument moved Yajima Kaji, then eighty-nine years of age, and convinced her to venture out for her third and final trip to the United States. N. O. K. [pseudonym of Kubushiro Ochimi], "Bankoku heiwa no tame ni shisha o okuru,"Fujin shinpō, no. 289 (October 10, 1921): 1-2.
58. "Three Distinguished W.C.T.U. Representatives from Japan of Peace Mission to United States,"Union Signal (October 13, 1921): 3; Moriya Azuma, "Heiwa no tabi ni shitagoute,"Fujin shinpō, no. 293 (February 10, 1922): 14-15.
59. Foster, The Women and the Warriors, 46.
60. "National W.C.T.U. President Received by President Harding at White House - Madam Yajima Presents Petition from Japanese Women,"Union Signal (November 10, 1921): 8; "Madam Kaji Yajima and Miss Moriya Honored Guests in Three Cities: Bring Peace Petition Signed,"Fujin shinpō, no. 291 (December 10, 1921); Mrs. A. M. Pinsent, "Madam Yajima Received by the President of the United States,"Fujin shinpō, no. 292 (January 15, 1922).
61. Moriya, "Heiwa no tabi ni shitagoute,"15.
62. Moriya Azuma, "Shiyatoru Kirisutokyō shinjya keishi narabini Nihon Fujin Kirisutokyō Kyōfūkai honbu oyobi shoshibu onchū,"Fujin shinpō, no. 291 (December 10, 1921): 13.
63. Iriye, Cultural Internationalism and World Order, 40
64. On the way to the national capital, they found in Minneapolis that the governor of Minnesota, district officers of the WCTU, and members of other women's societies including the League of Women Voters were waiting to welcome Yajima and her associates. In Evanston, Ilinois, Anna A. Gordon arranged a reception in which sixty-nine of that city's women's organizations participated. Former U.S. Vice President James Marshal joined the Sunday service held for the special guests from Japan. In Washington, DC, New York City, Chicago, Columbus, and Atlantic City, Yajima received invitations from a number of organizations, including Jane Addams's peace association and church services, and busied herself with making speeches and attending receptions and prayers. Japanese officials also took notice of them. Soon after their meeting with President Harding, Prince Tokugawa Iesato, representing the Japanese government at the Washington Naval Conference, held a reception in honor of Yajima at the Japanese embassy. Moriya Azuma, "Shiyatoru Kirisutokyō shinjya keishi narabini Nihon Fujin Kirisutokyō Kyōfūkai honbu oyobi shoshibu onchū,"12-13. "World Peace Movement Promoted by Visit of Madam Yajima and Miss Moriya,"Union Signal (November 3, 1921): 6; "World Peace Movement Promoted by Visit of Madam Yajima and Miss Moriya,"Union Signal (November 3, 1921): 6; "Madam Kaji Yajima and Miss Moriya Honored Guests in Three Cities"; Suzuran, "Gordon joshi no seii o shasu,"Fujin shinpō, no. 291 (December 10, 1921): 8-9; Moriya, "Heiwa no tabi ni shitagoute,"15-21.
65. Elizabeth P. Gordon, "School of Method,"in The Eleventh Convention Report (1922), 114, WML; "Five Continents in Congenial Concourse at Philadelphia,"Union Signal (November 30, 1922): 12; Kubushiro Ochimi, "Kaigai dayori,"Fujin shinpō, no. 304 (February 10, 1923): 44-45.
66. Kubushiro Ochimi, "Jūnenburi ni kokoku o hanarete,"Fujin shinpō, no. 308 (June 10, 1923): 29.
67. N. O. K. [pseudonym of Kubushiro Ochimi], "Haishō undō monogatari 5,"Fujin shinpō, no. 456 (March 1, 1936): 11-13.
68. "Fujin to injun,"Fujin shinpō, no. 109 (May 25, 1906): 2.
69. Kubushiro Ochimi, "Mansen yonjūnichi no tabi,"Fujin shinpō, no. 285 (June 10, 1921): 8-12; Kubushiro Ochimi, Haishō hitosuji, 138.
70. See Hayashi Utako, "Taiwan miyage,"Fujin shinpō, no. 122 (June 25, 1907): 7-9; Watanabe Tsuneko, "Taiwan kikou,"Fujin shinpō, no. 189 (March 25, 1913): 27;
71. Ruth Frances Davis, "A Temperance Tour in Formosa, "Japan Evangelist 20, no. 2 (February 1913): 111.
72. For the construction of racial identity of the Japanese and their position toward Koreans, Taiwanese, and Ainu, see Michael Weiner, "The Invention of Identity: Race and Nation in Pre-War Japan,"in The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan, ed. Frank Dikötter (Hong Kong, 1997).
73. Oguma Eiji, Nihonjin no kyōkai: Okinawa, Ainu, Taiwan, Chōsen, shokuminchi shihai kara fukki undō made (Tokyo, 1998), 152.
74. Iinuma Jirō, "3.1 jiken to Nihon kumiai kyōkai - tokuni Watase.Kashiwagi ronsō ni tsuite,"in Nihon no kindaika to Kirisutokyō, ed. Dōshisha Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo Kirisutokyō Shakai Mondai Kenkyūkai (Tokyo, 1973), 60-62; Wi Jo Kang, Religion and Politics in Korea under the Japanese Rule (Lewiston, NY, 1987), 14; Dohi Akio, Nihon Purotesutanto Kirisutokyō Shiron (Tokyo, 1987), 160-61.
75. Watanabe Tsuneko, "Taiwan kikou,"27; Ruth Frances Davis, "Another Link in the Chain of the World's W.C.T.U.,"Union Signal (April 11, 1912): 1-2.
76. Watanabe Tsuneko, "Chōsen ryokōki: Chōsen ni okeru Kyōfūkai undō,"Fujin shinpō, no. 177 (March 25, 1912): 27.
77. Kubushiro, "Mansen yonjūnichi no tabi"; Kubushiro, Haishō hitosuji, 138; Moriya Azuma, "Mansen no ichigatsuji,"Fujin shinpō, no. 297 (July 10, 1922): 25-29.
78. Prior to the Japanese WCTU's expansion into Korea and Manchuria, the Japanese YMCA had already done so with a belief that Korea and Manchuria needed Japanese guidance to progress. See Davidann, A World of Crisis and Progress, chaps. 4, 5.
79. Frances Willard Wang, "Campaigning for Temperance in China,"Union Signal (March 17, 1921): 5.
80. Ren Yin S. Mei, "China,"in The Eleventh Convention Report (1922), 50, WML. Meanwhile, the missionary members of the Chinese Union withdrew from its leadership and formed the Foreign Auxiliary in 1921. "World's W.C.T.U.,"W.W.C.T.U. Bulletin (January 1921).
81. Ren Yin S. Mei, "China,"in Minutes of the Executive Committee and The Eleventh Convention of the World's Woman's Christian Temperance Union (1922), 50, WML.
82. An Appeal from the W.C.T.U. of China. WML, China Collection.
83. Ruth Frances Davis, a resident missionary of the Japanese WCTU, for example, extolled Taiwan under Japan's rule as follows: "In this particular Japanese colony, as is the case with colonies of the world over, there is a freedom from restraint, a throwing off of many of the prejudices which hamper in the homeland, and cordiality on the part of the government officials, and an unbounded hospitality, which make a brief sojourn there a novel and altogether enjoyable experience."
84. Ruth Frances Davis, "A Temperance Tour in Formosa, "Japan Evangelist 20, no. 2 (February 1913): 111-12.
85. Ren Yin S. Mei, "China,"in The Twelfth Convention Report (1925), 67, WML; Furuya Shizuko, "Katsudō: Shanhai shibu hōkoku,"Fujin shinpō, no. 347 (February 1, 1927): 30.
86. Kubushiro Ochimi, "Sekai to tomoni Eikoku wa nazeni tatakaishika,"Fujin shinpō, no. 283 (March 15, 1921): 6.
87. For the formation of kokutai ideology, see Oguma Eiji, Tan'itsu minzoku shinwa no kigen: "Nihon-jin"no jigazō no keifu (Tokyo, 1995), chap. 8.
88. Kubushiro Ochimi, "Nihon fujin no kokusaiteki kakusei,"Fujin shinpō, no. 320 (August 1, 1924): 6. Satō Kazuki, however, argues that the concept of "dōbun dōshu"was also persuasively used to rationalize Japan's entry into China and meddling in the latter's internal affairs. Such attitudes of Japan toward China culminated in a vision of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. See Kazuki Satō, "'Same Language, Same Race': The Dilemma of Kanbun in Modern Japan,"in Dikötter, ed., The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan.
89. For Japan's reaction to Wilson's rejection of the racial equality clause, see
90. Jon Thares Davidann, "Colossal Illusions: U.S.-Japanese Relations in the Institute of Pacific Relations, 1919-1938, "Journal of World History 12, no. 1 (2001): 155-82.
91. Kubushiro Ochimi, "Fujin no mitaru jinshu sabetsu teppai an,"Fujin shinpō, no. 262 (May 13, 1919): 3.
92. For instance, see Kozaki Chiyoko, "Beikoku junkai nikki,"Fujin shinpō, no. 104 (November 25, 1905): 14; Kozaki Chiyoko, "Beikoku junkaiki,"Fujin shinpō, no. 109 (May 25, 1906): 18-19; Mitani Tamiko, "Genkon fujin no torubeki kakugo,"Fujin shinpō, no. 191 (May 25, 1913): 1-3; H. F. Parmelee, "Nichibei mondai ni kanshite Nihon kokumin no hansei o unagasu,"Fujin shinpō, no. 210 (December 25, 1914): 1-4.
93. For the changing sexual ratio of Japanese American population, see Roger Daniels, Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States since 1850 (Seattle, 1988), 152-54.
94. Kozaki Chiyoko, "Kanjita koto domo,"Fujin shinpō, no. 294 (March 10, 1922): 12-13; Moriya Azuma, "Heiwa no tsukai ni shitagoute,"Fujin shinpō, no. 294 (March 10, 1922): 23.
95. Gauntlett Tsune, "Shingari de tadaima kaerimashita,"Fujin shinpō, no. 283 (March 15, 1921): 16. Kubushiro Ochimi, "Jūnenburi ni kokoku o hanarete,"Fujin shinpō, no. 305 (May 10, 1923): 25; Kubushiro Ochimi, "Sekai to tomoni,"Fujin shinpō, no. 283 (March 15, 1921): 5.
96. "An Appeal from Our Comrades in Japan,"Union Signal (November 1, 1923): 9; "Japan,"W.W.C.T.U. White Bulletin (June 1924); "Message from Japan,"Union Signal (January 17, 1924): 9.
97. Kozaki Chiyo, "Ataeraretaru naiko no toki,"Fujin shinpō, no. 318 (June 10, 1924): 2; Kubushiro Ochimi, "Nichibei kankei no konponteki kaiketsu: Fujin no tachiba kara,"Fujin shinpō, no. 322 (June 10, 1924): 4-11; Gauntlett Tsuneko, "Beikoku no iminhōan o nanto miruka,"Fujin shinpō, no. 322 (June 10, 1924): 15; Wada Tomiko, "Jikyoku ni taishite hito futakoto,"Fujin shinpō, no. 318 (June 10, 1924): 16; Esu Emu, "Hitokoto,"Fujin shinpō, no. 318 (June 10, 1924): 21-22. For the immediate reaction of the Japanese to the Immigration Act of 1924, see Izumi Hirobe, Japanese Pride, American Prejudice: Modifying the Exclusion Clause of the 1924 Immigration Act (Stanford, CA, 2001), 21-51.
98. Mrs. A. M. Pinsent, "Immigration,"Fujin shinpō, no. 318 (June 10, 1924): 46; Hirobe, Japanese Pride, American Prejudice, 17.
99. Kubushiro Ochimi, "Nihon fujin no kokusaiteki kakusei,"3.
100. "Nichibei mondai ni kansuru ketsugibun,"Fujin shinpō, no. 319 (July 1, 1924); "Resolutions Regarding American Immigration Act,"Fujin shinpō, no. 320 (August 1, 1924). The other three resolutions were: "With the co-operation of their Japanese sisters, they will solely in a spirit of amity and peace, do their utmost toward bringing the affair to a desirable conclusion"; "Realizing that these more than 100,000 Japanese and their children constitute the touchstone of our racial value, we should give them our co-operation and support in order that they may be raised to a higher level, and to the height of the principles of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (Prohibition, Purity, and Peace)"; and "In order to bring about the realization of the above resolutions, we should aim at the elevation of the moral standards of this country, and call on all women throughout the world to unite their forces in order to increase friendly relations and understanding among all nations and races, and to secure worldwide peace and goodwill."
101. The senders were the Institute for a Christian Basis for World Relations representing the WCTU, the YMCA, League of Women Voters, Foreign Policy Association, Committee for Cooperation in Latin America, and Christian Way of Life.
102. Jane Harris, "Institute for Christian World Relations,"Women and Missions (August 1924): 188.
103. Moriya Azuma, "Konogoro (tsuzuki),"Fujin shinpō, no. 320 (August 1, 1924): 38.
104. Kozaki, "Ataeraretaru naiko no toki,"3; Kubushiro, "Nichibei kankei no konponteki kaiketsu: Fujin no tachiba kara,"8-9; Gauntlett, "Beikoku no iminhōan o nanto miruka,"15-16; Wada, "Jikyoku ni taishite hito futakoto,"17-19.
105. Alice L. Pearson, "Japan's White Ribboners in Anti-Vice Campaign,"Union Signal (July 17, 1924): 7.
106. The Twelfth Convention Report (1925): 79; "National Convention of White Ribboners of the Sunrise Kingdom,"Union Signal (August 28, 1926): 1.
107. Senbongi Michiko, former treasurer of the Union, and Matsuoka Asa, student at the University of Pennsylvania, attended the World's WCTU conference held in Edinburgh in 1925. In 1928, Watase Kame represented Japan in Lausanne. Japan sent Totoki Kikuko, president of Kure local union, to Toronto in 1931. May Hennigar, a Methodist missionary residing in Japan for more than three decades, attended the Stockholm conference in 1934. Gauntlett Tsune represented Japan at the Washington conference in 1937. After that, the World's WCTU conference was not held until 1947 because of World War II.
108. Moriya Azuma, "Gorudon joshi no raichō no hou ni sesshite,"Fujin shinpō, no. 303 (January 10, 1923): 2-4; Kozaki Chiyo, "Zenkoku no kaiin shoshi ni tsugu,"Fujin shinpō, no. 304 (February 10, 1923): 2-3; "Bankoku kaitō o mukaete dai sanjū-ikkai taikai,"Fujin shinpō, no. 304 (February 10, 1923): 4-6; Moriya Azuma, "Gorudon joshi no raichō chūshi wa warera ni nani o oshieshika,"Fujin shinpō, no. 305 (March 10, 1923): 2-5; "Kirisutokyō Fujin Kyōfūkai dai sanjū nikai zenkoku taikai kiroku,"Fujin shinpō, no. 307 (May 10, 1923): 34; Mrs. A. M. Pinsent, "Miss Gordon's Visit Postponed,"Fujin shinpō, no. 305 (March 1923); "World's President Accepts Invitations to Orient,"Union Signal (January 1927): 4; "Gōrudon joshi no raichō,"Fujin shinpō, no. 347 (February 1, 1927): 2; Kisha, "Gōrudon joshi no raichō enki ni tsuite,"Fujin shinpō, no. 348 (March 1, 1927): 8; "Miss Anna Gordon, President World W.C.T.U., Postpones Visit to Japan,"Fujin shinpō, no. 348 (March 1, 1927): 39; Anna Addams Gordon, "Bankoku Kyōfūkai kaitō yori no tegami,"Fujin shinpō, no. 350 (May 15, 1927): 13; Moriya Azuma, "Yutaka na fujin de atta,"Fujin shinpō, no. 401 (August 1, 1931): 12.
109. For the Pan-Pacific Internationalist movement, see Paul Hooper, Elusive Destiny: The Internationalist Movement in Modern Hawaii (Honolulu, 1980). For the brief history of the PPWC, see Paul F. Hooper, "Feminism in the Pacific: The Pan-Pacific and South Asia Women's Association,"Pacific Historian 20, no. 4 (Winter 1976): 367-77.
110. The United States, Hawai'i, Australia, Canada, Fiji, India, New Zealand, the Philippines, Samoa, Japan, China, and Korea sent delegates to the first PPWC.
111. They consisted of members of the WCTU, the YWCA, the Suffrage League, and other women's organizations from both the Tokyo and the Kansai areas and individuals such as a medical doctor, professors, a newspaper reporter, and primary school teachers. Pan-Pacific Union, ed., Women of the Pacific (Honolulu, 1928), 16-17, 279-80; Han Taiheiyō Tōnan Ajia Fujin Kyōkai, Han Taiheiyō Tōnan Ajia Fujin Kyōkai rokujūnenshi (Tokyo, 1993), 123.
112. Rumi Yasutake, "Feminism, Nationalism, Regionalism, and Internationalism: Japanese Women and the Pan-Pacific Women's Conference, 1928-1937,"paper presented at the Crossroads Conference in Honolulu, August 8-11, 2001; Pan-Pacific Union, ed., Women of the Pacific, 15-16.
113. Weber, "Unveiling Scheherazade,"138.
114. Angela Woollacott, "Inventing Commonwealth and Pan-Pacific Feminisms: Australian Women's Internationalist Activism in the 1920s-30s, "Gender and History, no. 3 (November 1998.
115. Fiona Paisley, "Cultural Internationalism and the 'Woman of the East': Australian Accounts of Japanese Delegates at Pan-Pacific Women's Conferences, 1928-1930,"paper presented at the Crossroads Conference in Honolulu, August 8-11, 2001.
116. Gauntlett Tsune, "Anti-Vice Movement in Japan,"in Pan-Pacific Union, ed., Women of the Pacific, 244.
117. "Fujindan no hantai ni atte todome o sasareta ketsugian,"Fujin shinpō, no. 383 (February 1, 1930): 36; J. Spencer Kennard, Jr., "Federation of Christian Missions,"Japan Christian Quarterly 5 (April 1930): 184.
118. Michi, "Aruhi no shokutaku: Kimono,"Fujin shinpō, no. 367 (October 1, 1928): 40-41.
119. "Gantoretto, Hayashi, ryō fukukaitō o okuru,"Fujin shinpō, no. 381 (December 11, 1929): 16; "Heiwa no shisetsu no takushite gunshuku tangansho o okuru,"Fujin shinpō, no. 381 (December 11, 1929): 29; "Naigai fujinkai,"Fujin shinpō, no. 383 (February 1, 1930): 24; "Heiwatangansho teishutushiki,"Fujin shinpō, no. 384 (March 1, 1930): 31-32; Hayashi Utako, "Heiwa no tabi,"Fujin shinpō, no. 384 (May 30, 1930): 6-13; Gauntlett Tsuneko, "Eibei ni tabishite,"Fujin shinpō, no. 387 (July 1, 1930): 10-14; "Women's Peace Petition Presented at London Conference,"Union Signal (March 8, 1930): 148; Izora Scott, "Our Part in the London Naval Conference,"Union Signal (March 15, 1930): 164; Gauntlett, Shichijū shichinen no omoide, 132-37; Jacqueline Van Voris, Carrie Chapman Catt: A Public Life (New York, 1987), 211.
120. Hayashi Utako, "Heiwa no tabi,"6-11.
121. Gauntlett Tsuneko, "Washinton ni okeru fujin no koe,"Fujin shinpō, no. 386 (May 10, 1930): 42.
122. Kyong Bae-tsung, "China's Industrial Women,"in Pan-Pacific Union, ed., Women of the Pacific, 76.
123. "The First Pan-Pacific Women's Conference and After,"Mid-Pacific (December 28): 402-3.
124. Gauntlett Tsuneko, "Hantaiheiyō Fujin Kaigi o owatte (2),"Fujin shinpō, no. 368 (November 1, 1928): 38.
125. Weber, "Unveiling Scheherazade,"145-48.
126. Kubushiro Ochimi, "Rinpō Chūka Minkoku,"Fujin shinpō, no. 365 (August 1, 1928): 1-4.
127. Mei, "China,"67; Furuya Shizuko, "Katsudō: Shanhai shibu hōkoku,"30.
128. Gauntlett, "Hantaiheiyō fujin kaigi o owatte (2),"38.
129. One attendant to the Institutes of Pacific Relations conference in Kyoto described its round tables as "out of order."A. Jorgensen, "Solving Problems through Understanding: The Recent Meeting of the Institutes of Pacific Relations - An Appraisal,"Japan Christian Quarterly 5 (January 1930): 34. For a summary of discussions and presentations, see J. B. Condliffe, ed., Problems of the Pacific 1929: Proceedings of the Third Conference of the Institute of Pacific Relations, Nara and Kyoto, Japan, October 23 to November 9, 1929 (Chicago, 1930).
130. Mitani Tamiko, "Taiheiyō Chōsakai,"Fujin shinpō, no. 381 (December 1, 1929): 37-38.
131. Ogawa, American Women's Destiny, Asian Women's Dignity, 328-54.