Pathophysiology of Shock in the Fetus and Neonate

Fetal and Neonatal Physiology: Third Edition

Volumn 1-2, Issue , 2003, Pages 772-781

  Noori, Shahab ^a,b,c   Friedlich, Philippe S ^a,d   Seri, Istvan ^a,b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b WOMEN S AND CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

^c LAC USC MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^d CHILDREN S HOSPITAL LOS ANGELES   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 33845186465     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-7216-9654-6.50078-3     Document Type: Chapter

References (151)

1. Rothstein RW, Longo LD Respiration in the fetal-placental unit. Principles of Perinatal-Neonatal Metabolism 1998, 451. Springer-Verlag, New York. R.M. Cowett (Ed.).
2. Nicolaides KH, et al. Blood gases, pH, and lactate in appropriate- and small-for-gestational-age fetuses. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989, 161:996.
3. Weiner CP, et al. The effect of fetal age upon normal fetal laboratory values and venous pressure. Obstet Gynecol 1992, 79:713.
4. Arikan GM, et al. Low fetal oxygen saturation at birth and acidosis. Obstet Gynecol 2000, 95:565.
5. Richardson B, et al. Fetal oxygen saturation and fractional extraction at birth and the relationship to measures of acidosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998, 178:572.
6. Ehrenkranz RA, et al. Effect of ritodrine infusion on uterine and umbilical blood flow in pregnant sheep. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1976, 126:343.
7. Hooper SB Fetal metabolic responses to hypoxia. Reprod Fertil Dev 1995, 7:527.
8. Rurak D, et al. Fetal oxygen extraction: comparison of the human and sheep. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987, 156:360.
9. Bell AW, et al. Metabolic and circulatory studies of fetal lamb at midgestation. Am J Physiol 1986, 250:E538.
10. Lorijn RHW, Longo LD Clinical and physiological implications of increased fetal oxygen consumption. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1980, 136:451.
11. Eldestone DI, et al. Effects of reductions in hemoglobin-oxygen affinity and hematocrit level on oxygen consumption and acid-base state in fetal lambs. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989, 160:820.
12. Towell ME, et al. The effect of mild hypoxemia maintained for twenty-four hours on maternal and fetal glucose, lactate, cortisol, and arginine vasopressin in pregnant sheep at 122 to 139 days' gestation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987, 157:1550.
13. Nijland R, et al. Fetus-placenta-newborn: arterial oxygen saturation in relation to metabolic acidosis in fetal lambs. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995, 172:810.
14. Mastuda Y, et al. Effects of sustained hypoxemia on the sheep fetus at midgestation: endocrine, cardiovascular, and biophysical responses. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992, 167:53.
15. Ross MG, Gala R Use of umbilical artery base excess: algorithm for the timing of hypoxic injury. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002, 187:1.
16. Ball RH, et al. Fetus-placenta-newborn: regional blood flow and metabolism in ovine fetuses during severe cord occlusion. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994, 171:1549.
17. Paulick R, et al. Metabolic, cardiovascular and sympathoadrenal reactions of the fetus to progressive hypoxia: animal experiment studies. Z Geburtshilfe Perinatol 1987, 191:130.
18. Jones CT, et al. Developmental changes in the responses of the adrenal glands of fetal sheep to endogenous adrenocorticotrophin, as indicated by hormone responses to hypoxemia. J Endocrinol 1977, 72:279.
19. Chalilis JR, et al. Plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol and adrenal blood flow during sustained hypoxemia in fetal sheep. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1986, 155:1332.
20. Challis JR, et al. Fetal and maternal endocrine responses to prolonged reductions in uterine blood flow in pregnant sheep. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989, 160:926.
21. Wardlaw SL, et al. Effects of hypoxia on β-endorphin and β-lipotropin release in fetal, newborn and maternal sheep. Endocrinology 1981, 108:1710.
22. Skillman CA, Clark KE Fetal beta-endorphin levels in response to reductions in uterine blood flow. Biol Neonate 1987, 51:217.
23. Raff H, et al. Arginine vasopressin responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia in late-gestation fetal sheep. Am J Physiol 1991, 260:R1077.
24. Stark RI, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid and plasma vasopressin in the fetal lamb: basal concentration and the effect of hypoxia. Endocrinology 1985, 116:65.
25. Sameshima H, et al. Vasopressin and catecholamine responses to 24-hour, steady-state hypoxemia in fetal goats. J Matern Fetal Med 1996, 5:262.
26. Cohen WR, et al. Plasma catecholamines during hypoxemia in fetal lamb. Am J Physiol 1982, 243:R520.
27. Cohn HE, et al. Cardiovascular responses to hypoxemia and acidemia in fetal lambs. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1974, 120:817.
28. Cohn HE, et al. The adrenal secretion of catecholamines during systemic metabolic acidosis in fetal sheep. Biol Neonate 1997, 72:125.
29. Faucher DJ, et al. Vasopressin and catecholamine secretion during metabolic acidemia in the ovine fetus. Pediatr Res 1987, 21:38.
30. Maternal-Fetal Medicine 1999, 249. WB Saunders Co, Philadelphia. R.I. Clyman (Ed.).
31. Koos BJ, et al. Adenosine mediates metabolic and cardiovascular responses to hypoxia in fetal sheep. J Physiol (Lond) 1995, 488:761.
32. 2A receptors mediate cardiovascular responses to hypoxia in fetal sheep. Am J Physiol 2001, 280:H83.
33. Kamitomo M, et al. Cardiac function in fetal sheep during two weeks of hypoxemia. Am J Physiol 1994, 266:R1778.
34. Reuss ML, Rudolph AM Distribution and recirculation of umbilical and systemic venous blood flow in fetal lambs during hypoxia. J Dev Physiol 1980, 2:71.
35. 2 delivery. Am J Physiol 1987, 252:H100.
36. Jensen A, et al. Effects of reducing uterine blood flow on fetal blood flow distribution and oxygen delivery. J Dev Physiol 1991, 15:309.
37. Gardner DS, et al. Effects of prevailing hypoxemia, acidemia or hypoglycemia upon the cardiovascular, endocrine and metabolic responses to acute hypoxemia in the ovine fetus. J Physiol (Lond) 2002, 540:351.
38. Blechner JN Maternal-fetal acid-base physiology. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1993, 36:3.
39. Gibson KJ, et al. Renal acid-base and sodium handling in hypoxia and subsequent mild metabolic acidosis in foetal sheep. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2000, 27:67.
40. Cock ML, et al. Alteration in fetal urine production during prolonged hypoxemia induced by reduced uterine blood flow in sheep: mechanisms. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 1996, 23:57.
41. Wintour EM, et al. Regulation of urine osmolality in fetal sheep. Q J Exp Physiol 1982, 67:427.
42. Gaudio KM, et al. Immature tubules are tolerant of oxygen deprivation. Pediatr Nephrol 1997, 11:757.
43. Kesby GJ, Lumbers ER The effect of metabolic acidosis on renal function of the fetal sheep. J Physiol (Lond) 1988, 396:65.
44. Kluckow M, Evans N Relationship between blood pressure and cardiac output in preterm infants requiring mechanical ventilation. J Pediatr 1996, 129:506.
45. Kluckow M, Evans N Superior vena flow in preterm infants: a novel marker of systemic blood flow. Arch Dis Child 2000, 82:F182.
46. Wardle SP, et al. Determinants of cerebral fractional oxygen extraction using near infrared spectroscopy in preterm neonates. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2000, 20:272.
47. Flowers F, Zimmerman JJ Reactive oxygen species in the cellular pathophysiology of shock. New Horiz 1998, 6:169.
48. Simonson SG, et al. Altered mitochondrial redox responses in gram negative septic shock in primates. Shock 1994, 43:3.
49. Winterbourn CC, et al. Chlorohydrin formation from unsaturated fatty acids reacted with hypochlorous acid. Arch Biochem Biophys 1992, 296:547.
50. Davies KJ, et al. Protein damage and degradation by oxygen radicals. II. Modification of amino acids. J Biol Chem 1987, 262:9902.
51. Spragg RG DNA strand break formation following exposure of bovine pulmonary artery and aortic endothelial cells to reactive oxygen products. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1991, 4:4.
52. Rubanyi GM Nitric oxide and circulatory shock. Adv Exp Med Biol 1998, 454:165.
53. Liu S, et al. Lipopolysaccharide treatment in vivo induces widespread tissue expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase mRNA. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1993, 196:1208.
54. Doughty L, et al. Plasma nitrite and nitrite concentrations and multiple organ failure in pediatric sepsis. Crit Care Med 1998, 26:157.
55. Carcillo J Nitric oxide production in neonatal and pediatric sepsis. Crit Care Med 1999, 27:1063.
56. Beckman JS, et al. Nitric oxide and peroxynitrite in the perinatal period. Semin Perinatol 2000, 24:37.
57. Shen W, et al. Nitric oxide: an important signaling mechanism between vascular endothelium and parenchymal cells in the regulation of oxygen consumption. Circulation 1995, 92:3505.
58. Barrington KJ, et al. The hemodynamic effects of inhaled nitric oxide and endogenous nitric oxide synthesis blockade in newborn piglets during infusion of heat-killed group B streptococci. Crit Care Med 2000, 28:800.
59. 2 delivery in septic dogs. Am J Physiol 1995, 268:H2017.
60. Grover R, et al. Multi-center, randomized, placebo-controlled, double blind study of the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor 546C88: effect on survival in patients with septic shock. Crit Care Med 1999, 27(Suppl):A33.
61. Mitaka C, et al. A selective inhibitor for inducible nitric oxide synthase improves hypotension and lactic acidosis in canine endotoxic shock. Crit Care Med 2001, 29:2156.
62. Carcillo JA Nitric oxide production in neonatal and pediatric sepsis. Crit Care Med 1999, 27:1063.
63. Doebber TW, et al. Platelet activating factor (PAF) involvement in endotoxin-induced hypotension in rats: studies with PAF-receptor antagonist kadsurenone. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1985, 127:799.
64. Handley DA, et al. Vascular responses of platelet-activating factor in the Cebus apella primate and inhibitory profiles of antagonists SRI 63-072 and SRI 63-119. Immunopharmacology 1986, 11:175.
65. Ayala A, Chaudry IH Platelet activating factor and its role in trauma, shock, and sepsis. New Horiz 1996, 4:265.
66. Fletcher JR, et al. Platelet activating factor receptor antagonist improves survival and attenuates eicosanoid release in severe endotoxemia. Ann Surg 1990, 211:312.
67. Rabinovici R, et al. Platelet activating factor (PAF) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF alpha) interactions in endotoxemic shock: studies with BN 50739, a novel PAF antagonist. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1990, 255:256.
68. Rabinowitz SS, et al. Platelet-activating factor in infants at risk for necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr 2001, 138:81.
69. Ewer AK Role of platelet-activating factor in the pathophysiology of necrotizing enterocolitis. Acta Paediatr Suppl 2002, 91:2.
70. Feuerstein G, et al. Alteration of cardiovascular, neurogenic, and humoral responses to acute hypovolemic hypotension by administered prostacyclin. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1982, 4:246.
71. 1) after hemorrhagic shock. Adv Shock Res 1982, 8:171.
72. Fink MP Therapeutic options directed against platelet activating factor, eicosanoids and bradykinin in sepsis. J Antimicrob Chemother 1998, 41(Suppl A):81.
73. Arons MM, et al. Effects of ibuprofen on the physiology and survival of hypothermic sepsis. Crit Care Med 1999, 27:699.
74. Reines HD, et al. Plasma thromboxane concentrations are raised in patients dying with septic shock. Lancet 1982, 2:174.
75. Ball HA, et al. Role of thromboxane, prostaglandins and leukotrienes in endotoxic and septic shock. Intensive Care Med 1986, 12:116.
76. Bohrer H, et al. Role of NFkappaB in the mortality of sepsis. J Clin Invest 1997, 100:972.
77. Collins S, et al. Regulation of adrenergic receptor responsiveness through modulation of receptor gene expression. Annu Rev Physiol 1991, 53:497.
78. Watterberg KL, et al. Prophylaxis against early adrenal insufficiency to prevent chronic lung disease in premature infants. Pediatrics 1999, 104:1258.
79. Annane D, et al. Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock. JAMA 2002, 288:862.
80. Seri I, et al. The effect of hydrocortisone on blood pressure in preterm neonates with pressor-resistant hypotension. Pediatrics 2001, 107:1070.
81. 1-adrenoreceptors by glucocorticoids and thyroid hormones in fetal sheep. Eur J Pharmacol 1995, 289:353.
82. Wehling M Specific, nongenomic actions of steroid hormones. Annu Rev Physiol 1997, 59:365.
83. Knowles RG, et al. Glucocorticoids inhibit the expression of an inducible, but not the constitutive, nitric oxide synthase in vascular endothelial cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990, 87:10043.
84. Walther FJ, et al. Pulsed Doppler determinant of cardiac output in neonates: normal standards for clinical use. Pediatrics 1985, 76:829.
85. Evans N, Kluckow M Early determinants of right and left ventricular output in ventilated preterm infants. Arch Dis Child 1996, 74:F88.
86. Osborn D, et al. Randomised trial of dopamine and dobutamine in preterm infants with low systemic blood flow. J Pediatr 2002, 140:183.
87. Kluckow M, Evans N Ductal shunting, high pulmonary blood flow, and pulmonary hemorrhage. J Pediatr 2000, 137:68.
88. Nuntarumit P, et al. Blood pressure measurements in the newborn. Clin Perinatol 1999, 26:981.
89. Lee J, et al. Blood pressure standards for very low birthweight infants during the first day of life. Arch Dis Child 1999, 81:F168.
90. Bada HS, et al. Mean arterial blood pressure changes in premature infants and those at risk for intraventricular haemorrhage. J Pediatr 1990, 117:607.
91. Tsuji M, et al. Cerebral intravascular oxygenation correlates with mean arterial pressure in critically ill premature infants. Pediatrics 2000, 106:625.
92. Osborn D, et al. Accuracy of capillary refill time and blood pressure for detecting low systemic blood flow in preterm infants. Pediatr Res 2001, 49:376A.
93. Seri I, et al. Effect of dopamine on regional blood flows in sick preterm infants. J Pediatr 1998, 133:728.
94. Tyszczuk L, et al. Cerebral blood flow is independent of mean arterial blood pressure in preterm infants undergoing intensive care. Pediatrics 1998, 102:337.
95. Seri I, et al. Regional hemodynamic effects of dopamine in the indomethacin-treated preterm infant. J Perinatol 2002, 22:300.
96. Kluckow M, Evans N Low superior vena flow and intraventricular haemorrhage in preterm infants. Arch Dis Child 2000, 82:F188.
97. Wright IMR, Goodhall SR Blood pressure and blood volume in preterm infants. Arch Dis Child 1994, 70:F230.
98. Biondi JW, et al. The effect of incremental positive end expiratory pressure on right ventricular haemodynamics and ejection fraction. Anesth Analg 1988, 67:144.
99. Vanhaesebrouck P, et al. Tight nuchal cord and neonatal hypovolaemic shock. Arch Dis Child 1987, 62:1276.
100. Kluckow M, Evans N Low systemic blood flow and hyperkalemia in preterm infants. J Pediatr 2001, 139:227.
101. Hunt R, et al. Low superior vena cava flow and neurodevelopmental outcome at 3 years. Pediatr Res 2001, 49:336A.
102. Hsueh W, et al. The role of the complement system in shock and tissue injury induced by tumor necrosis factor and endotoxin. Immunology 1990, 70:309.
103. Schutze S, et al. TNF-induced activation of NF-kappa B. Immunobiology 1995, 193:193.
104. Giroir BP, et al. The tissue distribution of tumor necrosis factor biosynthesis during endotoxemia. J Clin Invest 1992, 90:693.
105. Boekstegers P, et al. Repeated administration of a F(ab')2 fragment of an anti-tumor necrosis factor alpha monoclonal antibody in patients with severe sepsis: effects on the cardiovascular system and cytokine levels. Shock 1994, 1:237.
106. Taylor FB Role of tissue factor and factor VIIa in the coagulant and inflammatory response to LD100 Escherichia coli in the baboon. Haemostasis 1996, 26(Suppl 1):83.
107. Murphy K, et al. Molecular biology of septic shock. New Horiz 1998, 6:181.
108. Meadow W, Rudinsky B Inflammatory mediators and neonatal sepsis. Clin Perinatol 1995, 22:519.
109. Ng PC, et al. Refractory hypotension in preterm infants with adrenocortical insufficiency. Arch Dis Child 2001, 84:F122.
110. Lopez SL, et al. Supranormal cardiac output in dopamine and dobutamine dependent preterm infants. Pediatr Cardiol 1997, 18:292.
111. Watterber KL Adrenal insufficiency and cardiac dysfunction in the preterm infant. Pediatr Res 2002, 51:422.
112. Seri I, Evans J Controversies in the diagnosis and management of hypotension in the newborn infant. Curr Opin Pediatr 2001, 13:116.
113. Gill AB, Weindling AM Cardiac function in the shocked very low birth weight infant. Arch Dis Child 1993, 68:17.
114. Gill AB, Weindling AM Randomized controlled trial of plasma protein fraction versus dopamine in hypotensive very low birth weight infants. Arch Dis Child 1993, 69:284.
115. Lundstrom K, et al. The hemodynamic effects of dopamine and volume expansion in sick preterm infants. Hum Dev 2000, 57:157.
116. Kavvadia V, et al. Randomized trial of fluid restriction in ventilated very low birth weight infants. Arch Dis Child 2000, 83:F91.
117. So KW, et al. Randomized controlled trial of colloid or crystalloid in hypotensive preterm infants. Arch Dis Child 1997, 76:F43.
118. Ernest D, et al. Distribution of normal saline and 5% albumin infusions in septic patients. Crit Care Med 1999, 27:46.
119. Nadel S, et al. Albumin: saint or sinner?. Arch Dis Child 1998, 79:384.
120. Seri I Cardiovascular, renal, and endocrine actions of dopamine in neonates and children. J Pediatr 1995, 126:333.
121. Felder RA, et al. The dopamine receptor in adult and maturing kidney. Am J Physiol 1989, 257:F315.
122. Cheung PY, et al. The hemodynamic effects of dobutamine infusion in the chronically instrumented newborn piglet. Crit Care Med 1999, 27:558.
123. Seri I, et al. The effect of dopamine on renal function, cerebral blood flow and plasma catecholamine levels in sick preterm neonates. Pediatr Res 1993, 34:742.
124. Zhang J, et al. Mechanisms of blood pressure increase induced by dopamine in hypotensive preterm neonates. Arch Dis Child 1999, 81:F99.
125. Roze JC, et al. Response to dopamine and dobutamine in hypotensive very preterm infants. Arch Dis Child 1993, 69:59.
126. Wardle SP, et al. Peripheral oxygenation in hypotensive preterm babies. Pediatr Res 1999, 45:343.
127. Driscoll DJ, et al. Inotropic response of the neonatal canine myocardium to dopamine. Pediatr Res 1978, 12:42.
128. Pelayo JC, et al. Age-dependent renal effects of intrarenal dopamine infusion. Am J Physiol 1984, 247:R212.
129. O'Laughlin MP, et al. Augmentation of cardiac output with intravenous catecholamines in unanesthetized hypoxemic newborn lambs. Pediatr Res 1987, 22:667.
130. Padbury JF, et al. Dopamine pharmacokinetics in critically ill newborn infants. J Pediatr 1986, 110:293.
131. Seri I, et al. Cardiovascular response to dopamine in hypotensive preterm infants with severe hyaline membrane disease. Eur J Pediatr 1984, 142:3.
132. Seri I, et al. Effects of low-dose dopamine on cardiovascular and renal functions, cerebral blood flow, and plasma catecholamine levels in sick preterm neonates. Pediatr Res 1993, 34:742.
133. DiSessa TG, et al. The cardiovascular effects of dopamine in the severely asphyxiated neonate. J Pediatr 1981, 99:772.
134. Felder RA, et al. Alpha-adrenoreceptors in the developing kidney. Pediatr Res 1983, 17:177.
135. Perez CA, et al. Effect of high-dose dopamine on urine output in newborn infants. Crit Care Med 1986, 14:1045.
136. Ruffolo RR The pharmacology of dobutamine. Am J Med Sci 1987, 294:244.
137. Martinez AM, et al. Dobutamine pharmacokinetics and cardiovascular responses in critically ill neonates. Pediatrics 1992, 89:47.
138. Liet JM, et al. Dopamine effects on pulmonary artery pressure in hypotensive preterm infants with patent ductus arteriosus. J Pediatr 2002, 140:373.
139. Clark SJ, et al. Right ventricular performance in hypotensive preterm neonates treated with dopamine. Pediatr Cardiol 2002, 23:167.
140. Hentschel R, et al. Impact on blood pressure and intestinal perfusion of dobutamine or dopamine in hypotensive preterm infants. Biol Neonate 1995, 68:18.
141. +-ATPase activity in rat renal cortical tubule cells. Am J Physiol 1988, 255:F666.
142. Tulassay T, Seri I Interaction of dopamine and furosemide in acute oliguria of preterm infants with hyaline membrane disease. Acta Paediatr Scand 1986, 75:420.
143. Bell M, et al. Low-dose theophylline increases urine output in diuretic-dependent critically ill children. Intensive Care Med 1998, 24:1099.
144. Cheung PY, Barrington KJ The effects of dopamine and epinephrine on hemodynamics and oxygen metabolism in hypoxic anesthetized piglets. Crit Care 2001, 5:158.
145. Derleth DP Clinical experience with norepinephrine infusions in critically ill newborns. Pediatr Res 1997, 40:145A.
146. Campbell ME, Byrne PJ Outcome after intravenous epinephrine infusion in infants <750 g birthweight. Pediatr Res 1998, 43:209A.
147. Seri I, Evans J Addition of epinephrine to dopamine increases blood pressure and urine output in critically ill extremely low birth weight neonates with uncompensated shock. Pediatr Res 1998, 43:194A.
148. Rosenzweig EB, et al. Intravenous arginine-vasopressin in children with vasodilatory shock after cardiac surgery. Circulation 1999, 100(Suppl 2):II-182.
149. Bouchier D, Weston PJ Randomized trial of dopamine compared with hydrocortisone for the treatment of hypotensive very low birth weight infants. Arch Dis Child 1997, 76:F174.
150. Gaissmaier RE, Pohlandt F Single-dose dexamethasone treatment of hypotension in preterm infants. J Pediatr 1999, 134:701.
151. Fanconi S, et al. Hemodynamic effects of sodium bicarbonate in critically ill neonates. Int Care Med 1993, 19:65.