Mining the reefs and cays: Coral, guano and rock phosphate extraction in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia, 1844-1940

Environment and History

Volumn 12, Issue 4, 2006, Pages 395-433

  Daley, Ben ^a   Griggs, Peter ^b  

^a MANCHESTER METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b JAMES COOK UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Agricultural lime; Coral mining; Great Barrier Reef; Guano; Queensland

Indexed keywords

CORAL REEF; ENVIRONMENTAL DISTURBANCE; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT; GUANO; MARINE ENVIRONMENT; MINING; PHOSPHATE;

AUSTRALASIA; AUSTRALIA; CORAL SEA; GREAT BARRIER REEF; PACIFIC OCEAN; QUEENSLAND;

ANTHOZOA; OSTREIDAE;

EID: 33751567868     PISSN: 09673407     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3197/096734006779093686     Document Type: Article

References (187)

1. Recent studies describing the decline of the Great Barrier Reef include D. R. Bellwood, T. P. Hughes, C. Folke and M. Nyström, 'Confronting the Coral Reef Crisis', Nature 429 (2004):827-33;
2. Commonwealth of Australia Productivity Commission, Industries, Land Use and Water Quality in the Great Barrier Reef Catchment (Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia Productivity Commission, 2003), xxvii;
3. Miles Furnas, Catchments and Corals: Terrestrial Runoff to the Great Barrier Reef (Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2003);
4. David Lawrence, Richard Kenchington and Simon Woodley, The Great Barrier Reef: Finding the Right Balance (Carlton South: Melbourne University Press, 2002);
5. Queensland Government Science Panel (Great Barrier Reef Protection Interdepartmental Committee Science Panel), A Report on the Study of Land-Sourced Pollutants and their Impacts on Water Quality in and Adjacent to the Great Barrier Reef (2003), available at , accessed 30 Jan. 2003;
6. J. M. Pandolfi, R. H. Bradbury, E. Sala, T. P. Hughes, K. A. Bjorndal, R. G. Cooke, D. McArdle, L. McClenachan, M. J. H. Newman, G. Paredes, R. R. Warner and J. B. C. Jackson, 'Global Trajectories of the Long-Term Decline of Coral Reef Ecosystems', Science 301 (2003): 955-8.
7. T. P. Hughes, A. H. Baird, D. R. Bellwood, M. Card, S. R. Connolly, C. Folke, R. Grosberg, O. Hoegh-Guldberg, J. B. C. Jackson, J. Kleypas, J. M. Lough, P. Marshall, M. Nyström, S. R. Palumbi, J. M. Pandolfi, B. Rosen and J. Roughgarden, 'Climate Change, Human Impacts, and the Resilience of Coral Reefs', Science 301 (2003):929-33;
8. Pandolfi et al., 'Global Trajectories', 955-6;
9. James Bowen, 'The Great Barrier Reef: Towards Conservation and Management', in Australian Environmental History: Essays and Cases, ed. Stephen Dovers (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1994): 234-56;
10. James Bowen and Margarita Bowen, The Great Barrier Reef: History, Science, Heritage (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002);
11. T. P. Hughes, D. R. Bellwood, C. Folke, R. Steneck and J. Wilson, 'New Paradigms for Supporting the Resilience of Marine Ecosystems', Trends in Ecology and Evolution, Vol. 20, No. 7 (2005): 380-6, 381.
12. Bowen, 'The Great Barrier Reef', Bowen and Bowen, The Great Barrier Reef
13. Bowen and Bowen, The Great Barrier Reef
14. William Cronon, 'Modes of Prophecy and Production: Placing Nature in History', Journal of American History 76 (1990): 1122-31;
15. D. Demeritt, 'Ecology, Objectivity and Critique in Writings on Nature and Human Societies', Journal of Historical Geography 20 (1994): 22-37;
16. Hughes et al., 'New Paradigms';
17. Michael Williams, 'The Relations of Environmental History and Historical Geography', Journal of Historical Geography 20 (1994): 3-21.
18. B. Allen and W. L. Montell, From Memory to History: Using Oral Sources in Local Historical Research (Nashville: The American Association for State and Local History, 1981);
19. Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, 'Introduction: The Discipline and Practice of Qualitative Research', in Handbook of Qualitative Research, 2nd edition, ed. N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2000): 1-28;
20. Bill Gillham, The Research Interview (London: Continuum, 2000);
21. B. M. Robertson, Oral History Handbook, 4th edition (Adelaide: Oral History Association of Australia (South Australia Branch) Inc., 2000).
22. D. S. Carruthers, 'Limestone Mining', in The Future of the Great Barrier Reef: Papers of an Australian Conservation Foundation Symposium, Sydney, 3 May 1969, comp. Australian Conservation Foundation (Parkville: Australian Conservation Foundation, 1969):47-50, 47;
23. Robert Endean, Australia's Great Barrier Reef (St Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 1982), 300;
24. David Hopley, 'Anthropogenic Influences on Australia's Great Barrier Reef', Australian Geographer 19 (1988): 26-45, 34-5;
25. David Hopley, The Great Barrier Reef: Ecology and Management (Melbourne: Longman Cheshire, 1989), 20.
26. Joshua E. Cinner, Michael J. Marnane, Timothy R. McClanahan, Tracy H. Clark and John Ben, 'Trade, Tenure, and Tradition: Influence of Sociocultural Factors on Resource Use in Melanesia', Conservation Biology 19 (2005): 1469-77, 1469 and 1474-5;
27. Nicholas K. Dulvy, Yvonne Sadovy and John D. Reynolds, 'Extinction Vulnerability in Marine Populations', Fish and Fisheries 4 (2003): 25-64, 37;
28. E. D. Gomez, 'Perspectives on Coral Reef Research and Management in the Pacific', Ocean Management 8 (1982-1983): 281-95, 288-9;
29. Héctor M. Guzmán, Carlos Guevara and Arcadio Castillo, 'Natural Disturbances and Mining of Panamanian Coral Reefs by Indigenous People', Conservation Biology 17 (2003): 1396-1401, 1396 and 1398-1400;
30. Michael E. Huber, 'An Assessment of the Status of the Coral Reefs of Papua New Guinea', Marine Pollution Bulletin 29 (1994): 69-73, 72;
31. Karen Nichols, 'Coming to Terms with "Integrated Coastal Management": Problems of Meaning and Method in a New Arena of Resource Regulation', Professional Geographer 51 (1999):388-99, 395;
32. R. Sluka and M. W. Miller, 'Coral Mining in the Maldives', Coral Reefs 17 (1998): 288;
33. R. Soekarno, 'Comparative Studies on the Status of Indonesian Coral Reefs', Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 23 (1989): 215-22, 217.
34. Bowen and Bowen, The Great Barrier Reef, 2-3;
35. Hopley, The Great Barrier Reef, 19.
36. For general overviews of the history of settlement in Queensland see R. Fitzgerald, From the Dreaming to 1915: A History of Queensland (Brisbane: University of Queensland Press, 1982)
37. and R. Fitzgerald, From 1915 to the Early 1980s: A History of Queensland (Brisbane: University of Queensland Press, 1984);
38. for more details about the Queensland sugar industry see Peter Griggs, 'The Origins and Development of the Small Cane Farming System in Queensland, 1870-1915', Journal of Historical Geography 23 (1997): 46-61
39. and PeterGriggs, 'Sugar Plantations in Queensland, 1864-1912: Origins, Characteristics, Distribution and Decline', Agricultural History 74 (2000): 1-25.
40. For an overview of nineteenth century hydrographic mapping in Queensland see J. C. Gill, The Missing Coast: Queensland Takes Shape (Brisbane: The Queensland Museum, 1988);
41. the environmental history of these activities is described in Ben Daley, 'Changes in the Great Barrier Reef since European Settlement: Implications for Contemporary Management' (Ph.D. thesis, School of Tropical Environment Studies and Geography, James Cook University, Cairns, 2005), passim.
42. Furnas, Catchments and Corals, 4-5;
43. PeterGriggs, 'Improving Agricultural Practices: Science and the Australian Sugarcane Grower, 1864-1915', Agricultural History 78 (2004): 1-33, 2;
44. PeterGriggs, 'Australian Scientists, Sugar Cane Growers and the Search for New Gummosis-Resistant and Sucrose-Rich Varieties of Sugar Cane, 1890-1920', Historical Records of Australian Science 14 (2003): 291-311, 291-2.
45. B. A. Keating, K. Verburg, N. I. Huth and M. J. Robertson, 'Nitrogen Management in Intensive Agriculture: Sugarcane in Australia', in Intensive Sugarcane Production: Meeting the Challenges Beyond 2000, ed. B. A. Keating and J. R. Wilson (Wallingford: CAB International, 1997): 221-42, 226-7;
46. A. L. Garside et al., 'The Yield Plateau in the Australian Sugar Industry: 1970-1990', in Intensive Sugarcane Production: Meeting the Challenges Beyond 2000, ed. B. A. Keating and J. R. Wilson (Wallingford: CAB International, 1997): 103-24, 104;
47. A. W. Wood, R. G. V. Bramley, J. H. Meyer and A. K. L. Johnson, 'Opportunities for Improving Nutrient Management in the Australian Sugar Industry', in Intensive Sugarcane Production: Meeting the Challenges Beyond 2000, ed. B. A. Keating and J. R. Wilson (Wallingford: CAB International, 1997): 243-66, 245.
48. Annual Reports, Queensland Department of Mines, Queensland Parliamentary Papers (hereafter QPP) (various years); Ernest Scriven, Annual Report (hereafter AR), QBSES, 1914-15, QPP 2 (1915-1916): 1175;
49. Ernest Scriven, Annual Report (hereafter AR), QBSES, 1914-15, QPP 2 (1915-1916): 1175;
50. Ernest Scriven, AR, QBSES, 1915-16, QPP 2 (1916-1917): 1237;
51. Ernest Scriven, AR, QBSES, 1920-21, QPP 2 (1922): 1034.
52. David Hopley, The Geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef: Quaternary Development of Coral Reefs (New York: Wiley, 1982), 337;
53. Joseph Beete Jukes, Narrative of the Surveying Voyage of H.M.S. Fly, vol. 2 (London: T. and W. Boone, 1847), 266-7;
54. David Lawrence and John Cornelius, 'History, Relics and Tower Graffiti', in Raine Island and Environs Great Barrier Reef: Quest to Preserve a Fragile Outpost of Nature, ed. A. K. Smyth, K. H. Zevering and C. E. Zevering (Brisbane: Raine Island Corporation and GBRMPA, 1993): 1-11, 1 and 4;
55. Ian Loch, 'Raine Island: A Foul Hen Roost', Australian Natural History 1 (1984): 181-3, 182.
56. discussion of the geomorphological impacts of guano mining in the Great Barrier Reef was provided by Hopley, 'Anthropogenic Influences', 35.
57. W. R. Golding, Beyond Horizons (Brisbane: Wholesale Book and Library Suppliers, 1979), 77-8;
58. additional details are provided by F. W. S. Cumbrae-Stewart, The Boundaries of Queensland: With Special Reference to the Maritime Boundary and the Territorial Waters Jurisdiction Act, 1878 (Brisbane: Government Printer, 1930);
59. J. F. G. Foxton, 'The Land Act, 1897, and The Pastoral Leases Act of 1869', Queensland Votes and Proceedings 3, part 2 (1898): 903-6, 904.
60. Hal Heatwole, 'The Cays of the Capricornia Section, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, and a History of Research on their Terrestrial Biota', in The Capricornia Section of the Great Barrier Reef: Past, Present and Future, ed. W. T. Ward and P. Saenger (Brisbane: The Royal Society of Queensland and Australian Coral Reef Society, 1984): 25-44, 39 and 41;
61. Hopley, Geomorphology, 340;
62. Lawrence et al., Great Barrier Reef, 20;
63. Queensland National Parks and Wildlife Service (hereafter QNPWS), Capricornia Cays National Park Management Plan (Brisbane: QNPWS, 1999), 5;
64. A. Walsh, Lady Elliot: First Island of the Great Barrier Reef (Brisbane: Boolarong Publications, 1987), 30-2.
65. Jukes, Narrative of the Surveying Voyage, 266;
66. Golding, Beyond Horizons, 80-2;
67. Loch, 'Raine Island'. 183.
68. Lawrence and Cornelius, 'History, Relics and Tower Graffiti', 5;
69. Loch, 'Raine Island', 183;
70. Hopley, 'Anthropogenic Impacts', 34-5;
71. Hopley, Geomorphology, 335-7.
72. QNPWS, Capricornia Cays NP Management Plan, 5-6;
73. see also Oral History Cassette (hereafter OHC) 44, Changes in the Great Barrier Reef since European Settlement, Oral History Collection, Oct. 2002-Dec. 2003 (Cairns, School of TESAG, James Cook University, 4 Dec. 2003), 4;
74. In-letter Ref. 225/2, National Park (hereafter NP) Ranger to Secretary, 6 Oct. 1936, SRS5416/1 Box 9 Item 57, NP224, Bunker - Lady Musgrave Island, Queensland State Archives (hereafter QSA), 2.
75. A. F. Ellis, Adventuring in Coral Seas (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1936), 162.
76. Brisbane Courier, 9 Feb. 1900,
77. cited in Golding, Beyond Horizons, 90;
78. Heatwole, 'Cays of the Capricornia Section', 28;
79. QNPWS, Capricornia Cays NP Management Plan, 5;
80. see also Lawrence et al., Great Barrier Reef, 20.
81. Heatwole, 'Cays of the Capricornia Section', 28;
82. In-letter Ref. 225/2, NP Ranger to Secretary, 6 Oct. 1936, SRS5416/1 Box 9 Item 57, NP224, Bunker - Lady Musgrave Island, QSA, 3;
83. Hopley, Great Barrier Reef, 20.
84. Loch, 'Michaelmas Cay', 5;
85. QNPWS, Michaelmas and Upolu Cays NP Management Plan (Brisbane: QNPWS, 1998);
86. The Cairns Morning Post, 28 May 1901, 2;
87. see also the statistics provided in Statistics of the State of Queensland (1920), 111;
88. In-letter, Mr F. H. Dean, Kuranda to Mr Atherton, Minister for Mines, Queensland Department of Mines, Brisbane, 20 Nov. 1931, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA.
89. R. Bedford, The Great Barrier Reef: A Series of Photographs by E. F. Pollock and Frank Hurley (Sydney: Art in Australia, 1928), no pagination;
90. Hopley, Great Barrier Reef, 19-20;
91. J. A. Steers, 'Detailed Notes on the Islands Surveyed and Examined by the Geographical Expedition to the Great Barrier Reef in 1936', Reports of the Great Barrier Reef Committee 4, part 3, no. 7 (1938): 51-104, 54 and 65.
92. This paragraph uses information obtained from an undated edition of 1941 of The Bowen Independent, reprinted in The Bowen Independent, 29 Jan. 1971, 4;
93. E. C. Saint-Smith, 'Geological Survey Report: Rock Phosphate Deposit on Holbourne Island, near Bowen', Queensland Government Mining Journal 20 (15 Mar. 1919): 122-4.
94. 'Shipment of phosphates', The Bowen Independent, 22 Feb. 1919;
95. see also The Bowen Independent, 29 Jan. 1971, 4;
96. Harbour Board, Bowen, Statistical Book No. 1, Jul. 1915 - Feb. 1926, RSI5551/1 Item 1, Statistical Books, QSA;
97. J. C. Linedale, 'Warden's Report on Gold and Mineral Fields for 1921', QPP 2 (1922): 599-604, 600;
98. In-letter, A.C.F. and Shirleys Fertilizers Ltd to Secretary, Cairns Harbour Board, Cairns, 19 Jul. 1950, RSI13111/1 Item 84, Batches, Harbour Board - Cairns - Leases to ACF and Shirleys, QSA, 2;
99. Hopley, Geomorphology, 376;
100. Queensland Environmental Protection Agency (hereafter QEPA), Holbourne Island NP Management Plan (Brisbane: QEPA, 2003).
101. G. Bowen, 'Containing Reports upon the Formation of a New Settlement at Cape York, at the Northernmost Point of the Australian Continent; and Upon the Completion of the Survey of the Inside of the Great Barrier Reef, off the North-East Coast, by Commander Robinson, R.N.', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of London 8 (1864): 114-8, 116;
102. A. J. Boyd, Queensland (London: Queensland Government Emigration Office, 1882), 28;
103. C. H. Eden, My Wife and I in Queensland: An Eight Years' Experience in the Above Colony, With Some Account of Polynesian Labour (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1872);
104. Fitzgerald, From the Dreaming to 1915, 94;
105. Lawrence and Cornelius, 'History, Relics and Tower Graffiti', 4;
106. N. R. Strelitz, 'Trojan Car Trip, 1925, from Thursday Island to Pascoe River, Cape York, Showing Coral Church (All Saints), Darnley Island', Image No. P02139, Image Library, Cairns Historical Society.
107. Scriven, AR, 1914-15, 1175.
108. Scriven, AR, 1915-16, 1237;
109. Scriven, AR, 1920-21, 1034;
110. J. Kerr, Northern Outpost, 2nd edition (Mossman: Mossman Central Mill Co., 1995), 92-4;
111. see also G. L. Spencer and G. P. Meade, Cane Sugar Handbook: A Manual for Cane Sugar Manufacturers and their Chemists, 8th edition (New York: Wiley, 1945), 132, which describes the use of lime from coral beach sand in Hawaiian factories;
112. Norman J. King, 'Soil Acidity and Liming', in Manual of Cane-Growing, revised edition, ed. Norman J. King, Reginald Mungomery and Cecil Hughes (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1965):98-109,98-9,104 and 108, provided details of the use of lime in sugar cane production and acknowledged the chemical purity of lime manufactured from coral.
113. Anonymous, 'Recollections of the Reef', unpublished report, Changes in the Great Barrier Reef since European Settlement, Oral History Collection (Cairns: School of TESAG, James Cook University, Sept. 2003): 1-2, 1.
114. Kerr, Northern Outpost, 93-4;
115. QEPA, Visitor Information: Snapper Island NP and Marine Park (Brisbane: QEPA, 2003);
116. In-letter Ref. AWG:LDM, William L. Rutherford, Port Douglas to District Forester, Atherton, 11 May 1967, SRS5146/1 Box 2 Item 10, NP64, Snapper Island, QSA;
117. In-letter Ref. AWG:LDM, District Forester, Atherton to Secretary, Queensland Department of Forestry, Brisbane, 19 May 1967, SRS5146/1, NP64, Snapper Island, QSA.
118. In-letter Ref. 0663, E. Garner, Clump Point to Mr W. V. B. Forrester, Port Master, 23 January 1935, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA.
119. Evidence of the Snapper Island operation is found in OHC 16, 2 Sept. 2003 9 4-6;
120. OHC 17, 2 Sept. 2003, 2-3, 14 and 15;
121. and OHC 28, 19 Sept. 2003, 11;
122. the quotations in this paragraph are taken from OHC 16, 2 Sept. 2003, 4-6.
123. OHC 17, 2 Sept. 2003, 2-3.
124. OHC 17, 2 Sept. 2003, 2;
125. this description of the operation is consistent with the account provided in OHC 169 2 Sept. 2003, 4-5.
126. OHC 17, 2 Sept. 2003, 3 and 14.
127. OHC 16, 2 Sept. 2003, 6;
128. see also OHC 17, 2 Sept. 2003, 3.
129. Ian Loch, 'Michaelmas Cay', Cairns Shell News 11 (1991): 5;
130. see also 'Great Barrier Reef. Supplies of Coral Sand', The Cairns Post, 16 Jan. 1933, 11;
131. Bowen and Bowen, Great Barrier Reef, 291;
132. OHC 15, 27 Aug. 2003, 10.
133. Memo Ref. 1159, A. E. Aitken, Harbour Master, Innisfail to Port Master, Queensland Marine Department, Brisbane, 12 Mar. 1928, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA.
134. 'Application to Remove Coral, etc. from Islands and Barrier Reef', c.1929,PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA.
135. Melbourne Herald, 24 Jan. 1928,
136. cited in In-letter, N. G. Roskruge, Deputy Director, Navigation and Lighthouses, Queensland Marine Branch (Navigations and Lights Services), Brisbane to Dr Marks, Honorary Secretary, Great Barrier Reef Committee, Brisbane, 20 Jul. 1929, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA.
137. In-letter Ref. 47990, G. Averkoff, Port Douglas to Harbour Master, Port Douglas, 27 Sept. 1929, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA;
138. In-letterRef. 47990, E. J. Whelan, Harbour Master, Port Douglas to Chief Inspector of Fisheries (hereafter CIF), Queensland Department of Harbours and Marine (hereafter QDHM), Brisbane, 1 Oct. 1929, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA;
139. Out-letter Ref. 29/9270T, J. D. W. Dick, Secretary, Queensland Marine Board Office, Brisbane to Under Secretary, Treasury, Brisbane, 29 Oct. 1929, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA;
140. see also Kerr, Northern Outpost, 94.
141. Out-letter Ref. 28/7419, Queensland Marine Department, Brisbane to Chief Engineer, Queensland Harbours and Rivers Department, Brisbane, 24 Apr. 1928, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA;
142. Great Barrier Reef Fisheries Ltd, Tapping the Wealth of the Great Barrier Reef (Sydney: Great Barrier Reef Fisheries Ltd, 1929), 5;
143. J. E. Lane, Brisbane to Secretary, Queensland Provisional Forestry Board, 18 Oct. 1929, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA.
144. In-letter, E. Sanders to Hon. Minister for Mines, Brisbane, 22 Mar. 1928, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA;
145. In-letter, E. Sanders to Hon. Minister for Mines, Brisbane, 4 Apr. 1929,
146. PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA In-letter, E. Sanders to Hon. Minister for Mines, 15 Aug. 1928, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA;
147. In-letter, Messrs E. Sanders and others' syndicate (E. Sanders, G.H. Pritchard, Jas. G. Campbell and T. L. Jones) to Hon. A. J. Jones, Minister for Mines, Brisbane, 7 Dec. 1928, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA.
148. These details were compiled using many files contained in PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA; 'Regulations Governing the Taking of Coral or Shell-Grit - Section 18 of The Fish and Oyster Act of 1914', PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA;
149. In-letter Ref. 29/2120, Tanner and Kenny Contractors to Secretary, Queensland Department of Mines, Brisbane, 5 Aug. 1929, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA;
150. In-letter Ref. 30/6493, Forbes, for US, Brisbane to CIF, QDHM, Brisbane, 13 Nov. 1930, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA In-letter Ref 6699, A. A. Holland, Sydney to CIF, QDHM, Brisbane, 30 Oct 1934, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA;
151. Out-letter, CIF, QDHM, Brisbane to Harbour Master, Mackay, 5 Oct. 1934, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA;
152. In-letter Ref. 33/5239, A. A. Holland to CIF, QDHM, Brisbane, 1933, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA.
153. Out-letter Ref. 31/9363, A. Cullen, Chief Engineer, QDHM, Brisbane to US, Treasury, Brisbane, 19 Nov. 1931, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA;
154. see also F. H. Dean, 'Correspondence: Destroying Upola Bank on Barrier Reef', The Cairns Post, 27 Oct. 1931, 11;
155. In-letter, F. H. Dean, Kuranda to Mr Atherton, Minister, Queensland Department of Mines, Brisbane, 20 Nov. 1931, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA.
156. In-letter, Town Clerk, Cairns to Queensland Marine Board Office, Brisbane, 21 Aug. 1931, SRS146/1 Item 2, QSA;
157. In-letter Ref. L.A.C.T. Gen., Under Secretary, Treasury, Brisbane to Town Clerk, Cairns, 22 January 1931, SRS146/1 Item 2. QSA;
158. In-letter, US, Treasury, Brisbane to Town Clerk, Cairns, 20 Apr. 1932, SRS146/1 Item 2, QSASRS146/1 Item 2, QSA;
159. the formation of the earliest marine protected area has been discussed by Lawrence et al., Great Barrier Reef, 25.
160. In-letter Ref. 37/4439, Thos. G. Hope, Acting Under Secretary, Treasury to Official Secretary to His Excellency the Lieutenant Governor, Brisbane, 8 Jul. 1937, SRS31/1 Box 13, QSA In-letter Ref. 0991, E. H. Garner, Clump Point to Inspector of Fisheries, Innisfail, 29 January 1936, SRS31/1 Box 13/1, QSA;
161. D. Jones, Hurricane Lamps and Blue Umbrellas: A History of the Shire of Johnstone to 1973 (Cairns: The Cairns Post Pty Ltd, 1973), 317.
162. Out-letter, Secretary, Provisional Administration Board, QDHM to Secretary, Land Administration Board, Queensland Department of Public Lands, Brisbane, 31 Jul. 1939, SRS31/1 Box 13/1, QSA;
163. In-letter Ref. 225/47, Secretary, Queensland Forest Service, Queensland Forestry Sub-Department, Brisbane to Secretary, QDHM, Brisbane, 26 Jul. 1940, SRS31/1 Box 13/1, QSA;
164. the impounding of boats in the Second World War is described in OHC 42, 13 Nov. 2003, 3.
165. OHC 10, 10 Mar. 2003, 7;
166. Letter Ref 4868, Secretary, QDHM, Brisbane to Secretary, Queensland Sub-Department of Forestry, Brisbane, 29 Oct. 1940, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA.
167. Dean,'Correspondence';
168. In-letterRef. 33/3117,C.J. Hamilton, Land Agent and Deputy Land Commissioner, Cairns to Secretary, Land Administration Board, Brisbane, 19 Jan. 1933, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA Out-letter Ref. 31/9363, Chief Engineer, QDHM, Brisbane to Under Secretary, Treasury, Brisbane, 19 Nov. 1931, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA;
169. In-letter Ref. 0316, J. Brewster, Harbour Master, Cairns to Port Master, Brisbane, 16 January 1932, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA.
170. In-letter Ref. 0316, J. Brewster, Harbour Master, Cairns to Land Agent, District Land Office, Cairns, 30 Aug. 1933, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA In-letter, C. J. Hamilton, Land Agent, District Land Office, Cairns to Secretary, North Queensland Naturalist Club (NQNC), Cairns, 7 Sept. 1933, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA;
171. In-letter, C. J. Hamilton, Land Agent, District Land Office, Cairns to Mr H. F. Todd, Assistant Secretary, Great Barrier Reef Committee, 28 Sept. 1933, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA;
172. In-letter, H. J. Freeman, Instructor in Fruit Culture to Under Secretary, Queensland Department of Agriculture and Stock, Brisbane, 12 Sept. 1933, PRV8340/1 Item 1, QSA;
173. Bowen and Bowen, Great Barrier Reef, 291.
174. In-letter, Constable F. R. Donovan, Silkwood to Police Magistrate, Innisfail, 13 Jul. 1935, SRS31/1 Box 13/1, QSA;
175. In-letter Ref. 6174, Inspector of Fisheries, Innisfail to CIF, QDHM, Brisbane, 10 Aug. 1936, SRS31/1 Box 13, QSA.
176. Jones, Hurricane Lamps, 317.
177. See the discussion in OHC 35, 20 Oct. 2003, 6.
178. OHC 16, 2 Sept. 2003, 4-6;
179. OHC 17, 2 Sept. 2003, pp. 2-3 and 17;
180. OHC 20, 9 Sept. 2003,8.
181. Hopley, Geomorphology, 376.
182. Gomez, 'Perspectives on Coral Reef Research', 283 and 288-9.
183. Soekarno, 'Comparative Studies on the Status of Indonesian Coral Reefs', 217.
184. Hughes et al., 'New Paradigms', 382.
185. Hughes et al., 'New Paradigms', 381.
186. Bellwood et al., 'Confronting the Coral Reef Crisis', 831;
187. Hughes et al., 'New Paradigms', 381.