International crimes: Jus cogens and obligatio erga omnes

Law and Contemporary Problems

Volumn 59, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 62-74

  Cherif Bassiouni, M ^a,b,c,d  

^a Department of Law ^*

^b DEPAUL UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c International Association of Penal Law

^d International Institute of Higher Studies in Criminal Sciences

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 33751421617     PISSN: 00239186     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (179)

1. See, e.g., Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, opened for signature May 23,1969, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.39/27.
2. See also G.C. ROZANKIS, THE CONCEPT OF JUS COGENS IN THE LAW OF TREATIES (1976);
3. ANDRÉ DE HOOGH, OBLIGATION ERGA OMNES AND INTERNATIONAL CRIMES (1996) (embodying the author's doctoral dissertation, which is rich in public international law material and mostly based on the work of the ILC, but poor on ICL).
4. See M. CHERIF BASSIOUNI, A DRAFT INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL CODE AND DRAFT STATUTE FOR AN INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL (1987) [hereinafter BASSIOUNI, DRAFT CODE);
5. M. Cherif Bassiouni, An Appraisal of the Growth and Developing Trends of International Criminal Law, 45 REVUE INTERNATIONALE DE DROIT PÉNAL 405 (1974);
6. see, e.g., M. CHERIF BASSIOUNI, INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW (Vols. I, II & III, 1986-1997 and 2d. rev. ed. 1997);
7. INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW: A COLLECTION OF INTERNATIONAL AND EUROPEAN DOCUMENTS (Christine Van den Wyngaert ed., 1996);
8. ANDRE HUET & RENEE KOERING-JOULIN, DROIT PÉNAL INTERNATIONAL (1994);
9. M. CHERIF BASSIOUNI, CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY IN INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW (1992);
10. HAIDONG LI, DIE PRINZIPIEN DES INTERNATIONALEN STRAFRECHTS (1991);
11. M. CHERIF BASSIOUNI, INTERNATIONAL CRIMES DIGEST/INDEX (1985);
12. CLAUDE LOMBOIS, DROIT PÉNAL INTERNATIONAL (2d. rev. ed. 1979);
13. MOHAMMED HASSANEIN EBEID, AL-JARIMA AL- DAWLIA (1979);
14. STEFAN GLASER, DROIT INTERNATIONAL PÉNAL CONVENTIONNEL (Vol. 1 1971 & Vol. 2 1978);
15. GUILLERMO J. FIERRO, LA LEY PÉNAL Y EL DERECHO INTERNACIONAL (1977);
16. BART DESCHUTTER, LA BELIGIQUE ET LE DROIT INTERNATIONAL PÉNAL (1975);
17. 1 & 2 A TREATISE ON INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW (M. Cherif Bassiouni & Ved P. Nanda eds., 1973) [hereinafter 1 TREATISE];
18. DIETRICH OEHLER, INTERNATIONALES STRAFRECHT (1973);
19. A.H.J. SWART, INTERNATIONAAL STRAFRECHT (1973);
20. STANISLAW PLAWSKI, ÉTUDE DES PRINCIPES FONDAMENTAUX DU DROIT INTERNATIONAL PÉNAL (1972);
21. AKTUELLE PROBLEME DES INTERNATIONALEN STRAFRECHTS (Dietrich Oehler & Paul G. Potz eds., 1970);
22. OTTO TRIFFTERER, DOGMATISCHE UNTERSUCHUNGEN ZUR ENTWICKLUNG DES MATERIELLEN VÖLKERSTRAFRECHTS SEIT NÜRNBERG (1966);
23. INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW (G.O.W. Mueller & Edward M. Wise eds., 1965);
24. ANTONIO QUINTANO-RIPOLES, TRATADO DE DERECHO PÉNAL INTERNACIONAL Y PÉNAL INTERNACIONAL PÉNAL (1957);
25. STEFAN GLASER, INFRACTIONS INTERNATIONALES (1957);
26. GEORGE DAHM, ZUR PROBLEMTIK DES VÖLKERSTRAFRECHTS (1956);
27. STEFAN GLASER, INTRODUCTION A L'ÉTUDE DU DROIT INTERNATIONAL PÉNAL (1954);
28. HANS-HEINRICH JESCHECK, DIE VERANTWORTLICHKEIT DER STAATSORGANE NACH VÖLKERSTRAFRECHTS (1952);
29. JOSEPH B. KEENAN & BRENDAN F. BROWN, CRIMES AGAINST INTERNATIONAL LAW (1950);
30. NINO LEVI, DIRETTO PÉNALE INTERNAZIONALE (1949);
31. ALBERT DE LA PRADELLE, UNE REVOLUTION DANS LE DROIT PÉNAL INTERNATIONAL (1946);
32. ROLANDO QUADRI, DIRITTO PÉNALE INTERNAZIONALE (1944);
33. FRANCESCO COSENTINI, ESSAI D'UN CODE PÉNAL INTERNATIONAL DRESSÉ SUR LA BASE COMPARATIVE DES PROJETS & TEXTES RECENTS DES CODES PÉNAUX (1937);
34. HELLMUTH VON WEBER, INTERNATIONALE STRAFGERRICHTSBARKEIT (1934);
35. CARLOS ALCORTA, PRINCIPIOS DE DERECHO PÉNAL INTERNACIONAL (1931);
36. EMIL S. RAPPAPORT, LE PROBLÊME DU DROIT PÉNAL INTER ÉTATIQUE (1930);
37. HENRI DONNEDIEU DE VABRES, LES PRINCIPES MODERNES DU DROIT PÉNAL INTERNATIONAL (1928);
38. VESPASIAN V. PELLA, LA CRIMINALITÉ COLLECTIVE DES ÉTATS ET LE DROIT PÉNAL DE L'AVENIR (1925);
39. HENRI F. DONNEDIEU DE VABRES, INTRODUCTION A L'ÉTUDE DU DROIT PÉNAL INTERNATIONAL (1922);
40. MAURICE TRAVERS, LE DROIT PÉNAL INTERNATIONAL ET SA MISE EN OEUVRE EN TEMPS DE PAIX ET EN TEMPS DE GUERRE (1922);
41. JOSEF KOHLER, INTERNATIONALES STRAFRECHT (1917);
42. SALVATORE ADINOLFI, DIRITTO INTERNAZIONALE PENALE (1913);
43. FRIEDRICH MEILI, LEHRBUCH DES INTERNATIONALEN STRAFRECHTS UND STRAFPROZESSRECHTS (1910);
44. see also, e.g., M. Cherif Bassiouni, The Penal Characteristics of Conventional International Criminal Law, 15 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 27 (1983);
45. Robert Friedlander, The Foundations of International Criminal Law: A Present Day Inquiry, 15 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 13 (1983);
46. Leslie C. Green, Is There an International Criminal Law?, 21 ALBERTA L. REV. 251 (1983);
47. Farooq Hassan, The Theoretical Basis of Punishment in International Criminal Law, 15 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 39 (1983);
48. G.O.W. Mueller, International Criminal Law: Civistas Maxima, 15 CASE W. RES. J. INT'L L. 1 (1983);
49. M. Cherif Bassiouni, The Proscribing Function of International Criminal Law in the Process of International Protection of Human Rights, 8 YALE J. WORLD PUB. ORD. 193 (1982);
50. Leslie C. Green, New Trends in International Criminal Law, 11 ISR. Y.B. H.R. 9 (1981);
51. Hans-Heirich Jescheck, Development, Present State and Future Prospects of International Criminal Law, 52 REVUE INTERNATIONALE DE DROIT PÉNAL 337 (1981);
52. Leslie C. Green, International Crime and the Legal Process, 29 INT'L & COMP. L.Q. 567 (1980);
53. Leslie C. Green, An International Criminal Code - Now?, 3 DALHOUSIE L.J. 560 (1976);
54. Yoram Dinstein, International Criminal Law, 5 ISR. Y.B. H.R. 55 (1975);
55. Quincy Wright, The Scope of International Criminal Law: A Conceptual Framework, 15 VA. J. INT'L L. 561 (1975);
56. M. Cherif Bassiouni, An Appraisal of the Growth and Developing Trends of International Criminal Law, 45 REVUE INTERNATIONALE DE DROIT PÉNAL 405 (1974);
57. Robert Legros, Droit Pénal International 1967, 48 REVUE DE DROIT PÉNAL ET DE CRIMINOLOGIE 259 (1968);
58. Hans-Heinrich Jescheck, État Actuel et Perspectives d'Avenir des Projets dans le Domaine du Droit International Pénal, 35 REVUE INTERNATIONALE DE DROIT PÉNAL 83 (1964);
59. W.J. Ganshof van der Meersch, Justice et Droit International Pénal, 42 REVUE DE DROIT PÉNAL ET DE CRIMINOLOGIE 3 (1961);
60. Leslie C. Green, New Approach to International Criminal Law, 28 SOLIC. 106 (1961);
61. Jean Y. Dautricourt, Le Droit International Pénal, 37 REVUE DE DROIT PÉNAL ET DE CRIMINOLOGIE 243 (1957);
62. Jacques Verhaegen, Les Impasses du Droit International Pénal, 38 REVUE DE DROIT PÉNAL ET DE CRIMINOLOGIE 3 (1957);
63. Stefan Glaser, Element Moral de l'Infraction Internationale, 59 REVUE GÉNÈRALE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC 537 (1955);
64. A.D. Belinfante, Les Princips de Droit Pénal International et les Conventions Internationales, 2 NEDERLANDS TIJDSCHRIFT VOOR INTERNATIONAAL RECHT 243 (1955);
65. Guiliano Vassalli, In tema di Diretto Internazionale Pénal, 56 GUISTIZIA PENALE 257 (1951);
66. Stefan Glaser, Les Infractions Internationales et Leurs Sanctions, 29 REVUE DE DROIT PÉNAL ET DE CRIMINOLOGIE 811 (1949);
67. Henri F. Donnedieu de Vabres, La Codification du Droit Pénal International, 19 REVUE INTERNATIONALE DE DROIT PÉNAL 21 (1948);
68. Stefan Glaser, Le Principe de la Legalité des Delits et des Peines et les Procès des Criminels de Guerre, 28 REVUE DE DROIT PÉNAL ET DE CRIMINOLOGIE 230 (1948);
69. Henri F. Donnidieu de Vabres, Le Procès de Nuremberg et le Principe de la Legalité et des Peines, 26 REVUE DE DROIT PÉNAL ET DE CRIMINOLOGIE 813 (1947);
70. Henri F. Donnidieu de Vabres, Le Procès de Nuremberg Devant Les Principes Modernes du Droit Pénal International, 7 RECUEIL DES COURS 481 (1947);
71. Albert de La Pradelle, Une Revolution Dans le Droit Pénal International, 13 NOUVELLE REVUE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL PRIVÉ 360 (1946);
72. Max Radin, International Crimes, 32 IOWA L. REV. 33 (1946);
73. Gerald Abrahams, Retribution: An Inquiry into the Possiblity of an International Criminal Law, 92 LAW J. 38, 45, 53 (1942);
74. Roberto Ago, Le Delit International, 68 RECUEIL DES COURS DE L'ACADEMIE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL DE LA HAYE 419 (1939);
75. Henri F. Donnidieu de Vabres, La Repression Internationale des Delits du Droit des Gens, 2 NOUVELLE REVUE DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL PRIVÉ 7 (1935);
76. Vespasian P. Vella, Plan d'un Code Repressif Mondial, 12 REVUE INTERNATIONALE DU DROIT PÉNAL 348 (1935);
77. Carlos Alcorta, La Doctrina del Derecho Pénal Internacional, 2 REVISITA ARGENTINA DE DERECHO INTERNACIONAL 271 (1931);
78. Guiseppe Sagone, Pour un Droit Pénal International, 5 REVUE INTERNATIONAL DE DROIT PÉNAL 363 (1928);
79. Quintiliano Saldana, Projet de Code Pénal International, 1 CONGRÈS INTERNATIONAL DE DROIT PÉNAL (1926);
80. G. Glover Alexander, International Criminal Law, 5 J. COMP. LEGIS. & INT'L L. 90 (1923);
81. G. Glover Alexander, International Criminal Law, 3 J. COMP. LEGIS. & INT'L L. 237 (1921).
82. M. CHERIF BASSIOUNI, CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY IN INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW 87 (1992).
83. See, e.g., M. Cherif Bassiouni, States of Emergency and States of Exception: Human Rights Abuses and Impunity under Color of Law, in NON-DEROGABLE RIGHTS AND STATES OF EMERGENCY 125 (Daniel Prémont ed., 1996).
84. See M. CHERIF BASSIOUNI & EDWARD M. WISE, AUT DEDERE AUT JUDICARE, THE DUTY TO EXTRADITE OR PROSECUTE IN INTERNATIONAL LAW (1995).
85. See Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity, opened for signature Nov. 26, 1968, 754 U.N.T.S. 73 (entered into force Nov. 11, 1970);
86. INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW (Christine Van den Wyngaert ed., 1996).
87. See Kenneth Randall, Universal Jurisdiction Under International Law, 66 TEX. L. REV. 785 (1988);
88. Luc Reydams, Universal Jurisdiction over Atrocities in Rwanda: Theory and Practice, 1 EUR. J. CRIME CR. L. CR. J. 18 (1996).
89. See, e.g., E.H. GUISSE & L. JOINET, PROGRESS REPORT ON THE QUESTION OF IMPUNITY OF PERPETRATORS OF HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATION, U.N. Commission on Human Rights, Sub-Commission on the Prevention and Protection of All Minorities, 45th Sess., Item 10(a), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1993/6 (1993)(prepared pursuant to Sub-Commission Res. 1992/23);
90. L. JOINET, QUESTION OF THE IMPUNITY OF PERPETRATORS OF VIOLATIONS OF HUMAN RIGHTS (CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS): FINAL REPORT, U.N. Commission on Human Rights, Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, 48th Session, Item 10, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1996/18 (1996)(prepared pursuant to Sub-Commission Resolution 1995/35);
91. NAOMI ROHT-ARRIAZA, IMPUNITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW AND PRACTICE 14 (1995);
92. RUDOLPH J. RUMMEL, DEATH BY GOVERNMENT (1994);
93. TRANSITIONAL JUSTICE: HOW EMERGING DEMOCRACIES RECKON WITH FORMER REGIMES (Neil J. Kritz ed., 1995);
94. Stephen P. Marks, Forgetting the Policies and Practices of the Past: Impunity in Cambodia, 17 FLETCHER F. 18 (1994);
95. Diane F. Orentlicher, Settling Accounts: The Duty to Prosecute Human Rights Violations of a Prior Regime, 100 YALE L.J. 2537, 2542 (1991);
96. Mark J. Osiel, Ever Again: Legal Remembrance of Administrative Massacre, 144 U. PA. L. REV. 463 (1995);
97. Naomi Roht-Arriaza, State Responsibility to Investigate and Prosecute Grave Human Rights Violations in International Law, 78 CAL. L. REV. 449, 475 n.137 (1990);
98. Michael P. Scharf, Swapping Amnesty for Peace: Was There a Duty to Prosecute International Crimes in Haiti?, 31 TEX. INT'L L. J. 1, 4 (1996);
99. Robert O. Weiner, Trying to Make Ends Meet: Reconciling the Law and Practice of Human Rights Amnesties, 26 ST. MARY'S L. J. 857, 867 (1995).
100. See M. CHERIF BASSIOUNI, INTERNATIONAL EXTRADITION IN UNITED STATES LAW AND PRACTICE, ch.1 (3d ed. 1996).
101. See BASSIOUNI & WISE, supra note 5, at 8.
102. See, e.g., Question of the Punishment of War Criminals and of Persons Who have Committed Crimes Against Humanity, G.A. Res. 2840, U.N. GAOR 3d Comm., 26th Sess., Supp. No. 29 at 88, U.N. Doc. A/8429 (1971);
103. Principles of International Co-operation in the Detection, Arrest, Extradition and Punishment of Persons Guilty of War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity, G.A. Res. 3074, U.N. GAOR, 28th Sess., Supp. No. 30 at 78, U.N. Doc. A/9030 (1973).
104. See, e.g., THEODOR MERON, HUMAN RIGHTS AND HUMANITARIAN NORMS AS CUSTOMARY LAW (1989);
105. see also Claudia Annacker, The Legal Regime of "Erga Omnes" Obligations and International Law, 46 AUSTRIAN J. PUB. INT'L L. 131 (1994);
106. Theodor Meron, On a Hierarchy of International Human Rights, 80 AM. J. INT'L L. 1 (1986).
107. See IAN BROWNLIE, STATE RESPONSIBILITY: SYSTEM OF THE LAW OF NATIONS (1983).
108. See M. Cherif Bassiouni, A Functional Approach to "General Principles of International Law", 11 MICH. J. INT'L L. 768, 801-09 (1990).
109. See, e.g., LAURI HANNIKAINEN, PEREMPTORY NORMS (JUS COGENS) IN INTERNATIONAL LAW: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT, CRITERIA, PRESENT STATUS (1988).
110. See, e.g., IAN BROWNLIE, PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW 512-15 (3d ed. 1979);
111. 1 HERSH LAUTERPACHT, INTERNATIONAL LAW 113 (Elihu Lauterpacht ed., 1970);
112. GEORGE SCHWARZENBERGER, INTERNATIONAL LAW AND ORDER 5 (1971);
113. Gordon A. Christenson, Jus Cogens: Guarding Interests Fundamental to International Society, 28 VA. J. INT'L L. 585 (1988);
114. Karen Parker & Lyn Beth Neylon, Jus Cogens: Compelling the Law of Human Rights, 12 HASTINGS INT'L & COMP. L. REV. 411 (1989).
115. Other commentators have also noted that the function of peremptory norms in the context of international law has not been adequately addressed: Peremptory norms of international law (jus cogens) have been the subject of much recent interest. In light of their extensive and quite unprecedented treatment by the International Law Commission and the Vienna Conference on the Law of Treaties, it may be surprising that attention has not been greater. At the same time, inquiry into the relationship between peremptory norms and the sources and functions of international law have been virtually non-existent. This is indeed surprising, given the recent substantial interest in these areas as part of a larger "theoretical explosion" in international legal studies. N.G. Onuf & Richard K. Birney, Peremptory Norms of International Law: Their Source, Function and Future, 4 DENVER J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 187 (1973).
116. See ANTHONY D'AMATO, THE CONCEPT OF CUSTOM IN INTERNATIONAL LAW 132 (1971).
117. See Gordon A. Christenson, Jus Cogens: Guarding Interests Fundamental to International Society, 28 VA. J. INT'L L. 585 (1988);
118. cf. Mark Janis, Jus Cogens: An Artful Not a Scientific Reality, 3 CONN. J. INT'L L. 370 (1988).
119. See supra note 3.
120. The 1993 International Tribunal For the Former Yugoslavia and the 1994 International Tribunal for Rwanda statutes include the Statute of the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, U.N. SCOR, 48th Sess., 3217th mtg., at 1, U.N. Doc. S/RES/827 (1993) and the Statute for the International Tribunal for Rwanda, U.N. SCOR, 49th Sess., 3453rd mtg., at 1, U.N. Doc. S/RES/955 (1994), and address Genocide, Crimes Against Humanity, and War Crimes. The 1996 Code of Crimes includes these three crimes plus Aggression. See Draft Code of Crimes Against Peace and Security of Mankind: Titles and Articles on the Draft Code of Crimes Against Peace and Security of Mankind adopted by the International Law Commission on its Forty-Eighth Session, U.N. GAOR, 51st Sess., U.N. Doc. A/CN.4L.532 (1996), revised by U.N. Doc. A/CN.4L.532/Corr.1 and U.N. Doc. A/CN.41.532/Corr.3;
121. Crimes Against U.N. Personnel, in M. CHERIF BASSIOUNI, INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW CONVENTIONS (1997 in print) [hereinafter BASSIOUNI, ICL CONVENTIONS].
122. See Michael Ackehurst, Custom as a Source of International Law, 1974 BRIT. Y.B. INT'L. L. 1.
123. See BASSIOUNI, ICL CONVENTIONS, supra note 20.
124. See ICL CONVENTIONS, id.
125. See M. Cherif Bassiouni, From Versailles to Rwanda: The Need to Establish a Permanent International Criminal Court, 10 HARV. HUM. RTS. J. 1, 11 (1996) [hereinafter Bassiouni, From Versailles to Rwanda).
126. For the proposition that some violations of the Geneva Conventions are jus cogens see MERON, HUMAN RIGHTS, supra note 12, at 9.
127. See also Military and Paramilitary Activities (Nicar. v. U.S.), 1986 I.C.J. 14, 95 (June 27)(concerning the applicability of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties);
128. BASSIOUNI, ICL CONVENTIONS, supra note 20, at 341-46.
129. The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties with annex, 23 May 1969, U.N. A/Conf. 39/27, specifies in Article 53 that a treaty provision contrary to jus cogens is null and void. Article 71, paragraph 1(a) makes it clear, however, that the entire treaty is not null and void if the parties do not give effect to the provision in question.
130. The I.C.J. has also considered the question. In U.S. Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Teheran (U.S. v. Iran), 1980 I.C.J. 3 (May 24), the Court holds that some treaty obligations can also be "obligations under general international law," and in its advisory opinion on reservations to the Convention on Genocide 1951 I.C.J. 15 (May 28) it holds that the Genocide Convention is part of customary law.
131. In a tongue-in-cheek way, Professor Anthony D'Amato reflected the loose way in which jus cogens is dealt with in international law in the title of his short essay It's a Bird, it's a Plane, it's Jus Cogens!, 6 CONN. J. INT'L L. 1 (1990).
132. Threats to peace and security are essentially political judgments, and the U.N. Charter gives that function under Chapter VII to its primary political organ, the Security Council. Thus it is difficult to assess in objective legal terms what constitutes aggression. See among the many writers on the subject, YORAM DINSTEIN, WAR, AGRESSION AND SELF-DEFENSE (1988).
133. As to what is (or what is not) shocking to the conscience of humanity, that too may be a subjective factor. For example, a single killing, coupled with the required intent to "destroy in whole or in part" required in Article II of the Genocide Convention, is sufficient for that single act to be called genocide. But the killing of an estimated 2 million Cambodians is not genocide because it is not by one ethnic, religious, or national group against another, but by the same national, religious, and ethnic group against its own members, and for political reasons. Since political and social groups are excluded from the protected groups in the Genocide Convention, such massive killing is not deemed to be genocide, unless it can be factually shown that there is a diversity between the perpetrator and victim groups. Thus, one killing would be genocide and consequently jus cogens, while 2 million killings would not. Such mass killings do however fall under crimes against humanity and war crimes, and are therefore jus cogens crimes under other criminal labels. See BASSIOUNI, supra note 3.
134. ICL doctrine has not however sufficiently dealt with the doctrinal bases of international crimes, elements of international criminalization, and the criteria for their application to each and every international crime. This is evident in the writings of most ICL scholars. See M. Cherif Bassiouni, The Sources and Content of International Criminal Law: A Theoretical Framework, in 1 INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW, supra note *;
135. M. Cherif Bassiouni, Characteristics of International Criminal Law Conventions and International Criminal Law and Human Rights, in 1 INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW: CRIMES 1 & 15 (M. Cherif Bassiouni ed., 1986);
136. Daniel Derby, A Framework for International Criminal Law, in 1 INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW: CRIMES 33 (M. Cherif Bassiouni ed., 1986).
137. Except for the notable problem in the South Asia Seas. See G.O.W. MUELLER & FREDA ADLER, OUTLAWS OF THE OCEAN: THE COMPLETE BOOK OF CONTEMPORARY CRIME ON THE HIGH SEAS (1985).
138. See Jacob Sundberg, The Crime of Piracy, in 1 INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW, supra note *.
139. See Theodor Meron, International Criminalization of Internal Atrocities, 89 AM. J. INT'L L. 554 (1995) (arguing that artificial legal distinctions between conflicts of an international and non-international character should be eliminated, a position strongly supported by this writer;
140. see M. CHERIF BASSIOUNI (IN COLLABORATION WITH PETER MANIKAS), THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL TRIBUNAL FOR THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA (1995)).
141. See also HOWARD LEVIE, TERRORISM IN WAR CRIMES: THE LAW OF WAR CRIMES (1993).
142. See, e.g., BASSIOUNI, ICL CONVENTIONS, supra note 20.
143. This is particularly true with respect to the military laws of 188 states that embody the normative proscriptions and prescriptions of the Geneva Conventions of August 12, 1949; 147 states for Additional Protocol 2 and 139 for Additional Protocol II. See BASSIOUNI, ICL CONVENTIONS, supra note 20, at 252.
144. See Bassiouni, From Versailles to Rwanda, supra note 24.
145. See BIN CHENG, GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LAW AS APPLIED BY INTERNATIONAL COURTS AND TRIBUNALS (George W. Keeton & Georg Schwarzenberger eds., 1953);
146. BASSIOUNI, supra note 3.
147. II HUGO GROTIUS, DE JURE BELLI AC PACIS, ch. XXI, §§ III, IV, in CLASSICS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 526-29 (James B. Scott ed. & F. Kelsey trans., 1925);
148. II EMMERICK DE VATTEL, THE LAW OF NATIONS, in CLASSICS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW (Charles G. Fenwick trans., 1916).
149. 1986 I.C.J. 14. See generally Appraisals of the ICJ's Decision: Nicaragua v. United States (Merits), 81 AM J. INT'L. L. 77 (1987).
150. See LAW AND FORCE IN THE NEW INTERNATIONAL ORDER (Lori Fisler Damrosch & David Scheffer eds., 1991).
151. See Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice on Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and the Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 1951 I.C.J. 1, 15 (May 28); Convention on the Prevention and the Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Dec. 9, 1948, 78 U.N.T.S. 277.
152. One example in ICL is the non-applicability of the "defense of obedience to superior orders" to a patently illegal order. But when is such order deemed illegal on its face and on what normative basis? See YORAM DINSTEIN, THE DEFENSE OF "OBEDIENCE TO SUPERIOR ORDERS" IN INTERNATIONAL LAW (1965);
153. LESLIE GREEN, SUPERIOR ORDERS IN NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LAW (1976);
154. NICO KEIJZER, MILITARY OBEDIENCE (1978);
155. EKKHART MULLER-RAPPARD, L'ORDRE SUPERIEUR MILITAIRE ET LA RESPONSIBILITE PENALE DU SUBORDONNE (1965);
156. Leslie Green, Superior Orders and Command Responsibility, 1989 Can. Y.B. Int'l L. 167.
157. Agreement for the Prosecution and Punishment of Major War Criminals of the European Axis, Aug. 8, 1945, London Charter, 59 Stat. 1544, 82 U.N.T.S. 279.
158. See, e.g., Bassiouni, supra note 3;
159. Bassiouni, International Law and the Holocaust, 9 CAL. W. INT'L. L.J. 201, 208-14 (1979).
160. See Bassiouni, supra note 3, ch. 2.
161. See BASSIOUNI, DRAFT CODE, supra note 2;
162. see also Draft Code of Crimes, supra note 20;
163. M. Cherif Bassiouni, The History of the Draft Code of Crimes Against the Peace and Security of Mankind, in 1 INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW, supra note *.
164. See Randall, supra note 7, at 829-30 (1988); Reydams, supra note 7.
165. In an important study bearing on the erga omnes and jus cogens relationship, Professor Randall notes that "traditionally international law functionally has distinguished the erga omnes and jus cogens doctrines." Randall, supra note 7, at 830. However, he, too, seems to accept the sine qua non relatively. Jus cogens means compelling law. [The jus cogens concept refers to] peremptory principles or norms from which no derogation is permitted, and which may therefore operate to invalidate a treaty or agreement between States to the extent of the inconsistency with any such principles or norms. Id. While authoritative lists of obligations erga omnes and jus cogens norms do not exist, any such list likely would include the norms against hijacking, hostage taking, crimes against internationally protected persons, apartheid, and torture. Traditionally, international law functionally has distinguished the erga omnes and jus cogens doctrines, which addresses violations of individual responsibility. These doctrines nevertheless, may subsidiarily support the right of all states to exercise universal jurisdiction over the individual offenders. One might argue that "when committed by individuals," violations of erga omnes obligations and peremptory norms "may be punishable by any State under the universality principle." Id. 47. Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Co. Ltd. (Belg. v. Spain), 1970 I.C.J. 3, 32 (Feb. 5).
166. Id.
167. Id. The court further stated in the ensuing paragraph: Such obligations derive, for example, in contemporary international law, from the outlawing of acts of aggression, and of genocide, as also from the principles and rules concerning the basic rights of the human person, including protection from slavery and racial discrimination. Some of the corresponding rights of protection have entered into the body of general international law (Reservations to the Convention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 23); others are conferred by international instruments of a universal or quasi-universal character.
168. Barcelona Traction, 1970 I.C.J. at 32.
169. In Right of Passage Over Indian Territory (Portugal v. India), 1960 I.C.J. 123, 135 (Apr. 12) (Fernandes, J. dissenting), Judge Fernandes states: It is true that in principle special rules will prevail over general rules, but to take it as established that in the present case the particular rule is different from the general rule is to beg the question. Moreover, there are exceptions to this principle. Several rules cogestes prevail over any special rules. And the general principles to which I shall refer later constitute true rule of jus cogens over which no special practice can prevail. See also Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276, 1971 I.C.J. 66 (June 21) (Fernandes, J., dissenting).
170. See S.S. "Lotus" (France v. Turk.), 1927 P.C.I.J. (ser. A) No. 10 (Sept. 7).
171. MERON, supra note 12, at 188-97.
172. 1951 ICJ REP. 15 (May 28);
173. see Gordon Christenson, The World Court and Jus Cogens, 81 AM. J. INT'L L. 93 (1987).
174. (Preliminary Objections) (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), 1963 ICJ REP. 319 (Dec. 21); see Christenson, supra note 54.
175. Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Co. Ltd. (Belg. v. Spain), 1970 I.C.J. 3 (Feb. 5); see Christenson, supra note 54.
176. Lech Gardocki, Report, Les Crimes Internationaux et le Droit Pénal Interne, 60 REVUE INTERNATIONALE DE DROIT PÉNAL 91 (1989);
177. Otto Triffterer, Report, Les Crimes Internationaux et le Droit Pénal Interne, 60 REVUE INTERNATIONALE DE DROIT PÉNAL 31 (1989).
178. On the establishment of the permanent international criminal court, see Report of the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court, U.N. GAOR 51st Sess., Supp No. 22, U.N. Doc A/51/22 (1996);
179. 13 NOUVELLES ÉTUDES PÉNALES (1997).