Women's human rights in the Koran: An interpretive approach

Human Rights Quarterly

Volumn 28, Issue 4, 2006, Pages 868-903

  Shah, Niaz A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HUMAN RIGHTS; ISLAMISM; WOMENS STATUS;

EID: 33751350520     PISSN: 02750392     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/hrq.2006.0053     Document Type: Article

References (220)

1. Charlotte Bunch, Transforming Human Rights from Feminist Perspective, in Women's Rights Human Rights: International Feminist Perspective 12-15 (Julie Stone Peters & Andrea Wolper eds., 1995)
2. see also Elisabeth Friedman, Women's Human Rights: The Emergence of a Movement, in id. at 18.
3. Hilary Charlesworht & Christine Chinkin, The Boundaries of International Law: The Feminist Analysis 249 (2000).
4. Courtney W. Howland, Women and Religious Fundamentalism, 35 Col. J. Transnat'l L. 271, 273 (1997).
5. Slavery is not practiced in the Muslim world despite the fact that the Koran allows it. Muslim states have not outlawed slavery, it is simply not practiced.
6. Reza Afshari, An Essay on Islamic Cultural Relativism in the Discourse of Human Rights, 16 Hum. Rts. Q. 235, 236 (1994): "I write from a secular and universalist perspective as a non-religious Middle Easterner."
7. Id. A distinction should be made between those Muslim scholars who want to reform Islamic law within limits set by Islam in order to make it compatible with human rights standards and those who support enactment of laws compatible with human rights standards without referring to religion.
8. Pakistan and Afghanistan are two countries, which have declared Islam as a state religion. See Pakistan Const., art. 2 (1973)
9. Afghanistan Const., art. 2 (2004).
10. "For the bulk of humankind, belief is the most significant of all aspects of life." Freedom of Religion and Belief: A World Report 1 (Kevin Boyle & Julieo Sheen eds., 1997).
11. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted 19 Dec. 1966, G.A. Res. 2200 (XXI), U.N. GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16, art. 18, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 999 U.N.15. 171 (entered into force 23 Mar. 1976).
12. It must be made clear that many governments have used Islam as pretext to advance their hidden political agendas, as will be discussed later in this article.
13. Abdul Aziz Said, Precepts and Practice of Human Rights in Islam, 1 Universal Hum. Rts. 63 (1979).
14. James P. Piscotri, Human Rights in Islamic Political Culture, in The Moral Imperatives of Human Rights: A World Survey 158-159 (Thompson ed., 1980).
15. Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilisations?, Foreign Aff. 22 (Summer 1993).
16. Id. at 23.
17. Id. at 29.
18. Samuel P. Huntington, If Not Civilisations, What?, Foreign Aff. 186, (Nov.-Dec. 1993).
19. Some may contest this characterization of international human rights, arguing instead that they are fixed and cannot be changed, such as the right to life. Others, such as Michael Freeman, argue that there is a "hidden God in human rights." See Michael Freeman, The Problem of Secularism in Human Rights Theory, 26 Hum. Rts. Q. 375, 387-89 (2004).
20. Piscotri, supra note 12, at 142.
21. Jack Donnelly, Universal Human Rights In Theory and Practice, 49-50 (1989).
22. A. K. Brohi, Islam and Human Rights, 32 All Pakistan Legal Decision (PLD) 148 (1976).
23. A.K. Brohi, Islam and Human Rights, in The Challenge of Islam 179-80 (Altaf Gauhar ed., 1978).
24. See Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Current Muslim Thinking on Human Rights, in Human Rights in Africa: Cross-Cultural Perspective 133 (Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im & Francis M. Deng eds., 1990).
25. Id.
26. Riffat Hassan, On Human Rights and The Quranic Perspective, in Human Rights in Religious Traditions 53 (Swidler ed., 1982).
27. Barbara Stowasser, Gender Issues and Contemporary Quran Interpretation, in Islam, Gender and Social Change 34 (Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad & John L. Esposito eds., 1998): This division of reading Koranic verses as ibadat and muawalat was originally M. Abduh's idea.
28. Abdullah Yusuf 'Ali, The Meaning of the Holy Qur'an, at Sura 4, verse 59 (Abdul lah Yusuf 'Ali trans., 5th ed. 1993) [hereinafter Koran].
29. Id. at 203, n. 580.
30. Ebrahim Moosa, The Dilemma of Islamic Human Rights Schemes, 15 J. L. & Religion 187 (2000-2001).
31. Abul A'la Maududi, Human Rights in Islam 12 (2d ed. 1995).
32. Id. at 39.
33. See Ann Elizabeth Mayer, Islam and Human Rights: Tradition and Politics 186 (3rd ed. 1999).
34. N. J. Coulson, The State and the Individual in Islamic Law, 6 Int'l & Comp. L. Q. 49, 50 (Jan. 1957).
35. Maududi, supra note 29, at 12.
36. Majid Khadduri, Human Rights in Islam, 243 Annals Am. Academy 78 (1946).
37. See Mayer, supra note 31, at 68.
38. Id. at 71.
39. Bassam Tibi, Review of Mayer, Islam and Human Rights, 5 Harv. Hum. Rts. J. 221, 225 (1992).
40. See Afshari, supra note 5, at 260.
41. Mahmood Monshipouri, Islamism, Secularism and Human Rights in the Middle East 25 (1998).
42. Id. at 9.
43. Id. at 20.
44. Id. at 64.
45. Asifa Quraishi, Book Review of Islamism, Secularism and Human Rights in the Middle East, by Mahmood Monshipouri 22 Hum. Rts. Q. 625, 628 (2000).
46. Afshari considers Tibi as a secular scholar advocating cultural pluralism within the emerging global civilization. See Afshari, supra note 5, at 250.
47. Bassam Tibi, Islamic LawlShari'a, Human Rights, Universal Morality and International Relations, 16 Hum. Rts. Q. 277, 285 (1994).
48. Id.
49. Id at 288.
50. Id. at 289.
51. Bassam Tibi, The European Tradition of Human Rights and the Culture of Islam, in Human Rights in Africa: Cross Cultural Perspectives 117 (Abdullahi An-Na'im & Francis Deng eds. 1999).
52. Tibi, supra note 45, at 288.
53. Id. at 289.
54. Mashood A. Baderin, Preface to International Human Rights and Islamic Law (2003).
55. Id.
56. Id.
57. Id.
58. Id. at 231.
59. Islamic law is divided into two main schools: Shia and Sunni. Shia school is further subdivided into Athna Ashari and Ismaili sects. The Sunni school is divided into four sub-schools: Hanafi. Malaki, Hambali, and Shafi'i. The doctrine of maslahah is attributed mainly to the Malki School but also used by Hambali and Shafi'i schools. See John L. Esposito & Natana J. DeLong-Bas, Women in Muslim Family Law 8 (Syracuse University Press, 2d ed., 2001).
60. Baderin, supra note 52, at 43.
61. Id.
62. Abdullahi Ahmad An-Na'im, Towards an Islamic Reformation: Civil Liberties, Human Rights and International Law 25 (1990).
63. Fazlur Rahman, Towards Reformulating the Methodology of Islamic Law, 12 N.Y.U. J. Int'l. & Politics 219 (1979).
64. See Islamic Reform: The Political and Legal Theories of Muhammad 'Abduh and Rashid Rida: Legal Doctrines 187-208 (Malcolm H. Kerred., 1966).
65. See Baderin, supra note 52, at 231.
66. Id. at 232.
67. Hilaire Barnett, Britain Unwrapped: Government and Constitution Explained 320 (2002).
68. The European Convention for the Protection on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, opened for signature 4 Nov. 1950, art. 12, Europ. T.S. 46, 7 I.L.M. 978 (1950) (entered into force 3 Sept. 1953),
69. reprinted in Basic Documents on Human Rights 247 (Ian Brownlie ed., 2d ed. 1981).
70. Barnett, supra note 65.
71. Johnston v. Ireland, 9 Eur. Hum. Rts. Rev. 203 (1986).
72. An-Na'im, supra note 60, at 172.
73. Id. at 179.
74. See Mahmoud Mohamed Taha, The Second Message of Islam (Trans. Abdullahi A. An-Na'im, 1987).
75. An-Na'im, supra note 60, at 180. When the persecution of Prophet Muhammad by his tribe, Quraish, became unbearable, he migrated from Mecca to Medina. From this event Islamic calendar begins.
76. Id. at 171.
77. Id.
78. Id.
79. Id. at 180. The verses of the Koran are divided into two groups: that which revealed at Mecca before Muhammad's migration to Medina and those, which were revealed in Madina. Both differ in respect of issues they address: the Meccan deals with issue of faith and rituals whereas the later deals with politics and state, war etc.
80. Koran, supra note 26, Sura 18, verse 27.
81. See Tibi, supra note 45.
82. John Voll, Foreword in An-Na'im, Towards an Islamic Reformation, supra note 60, at x.
83. Id.
84. See An-Na'im, supra note 60, at 186.
85. Betty Milstead, Feminist Theology and Women in the Muslim World. An Interview with Riffat Hassan, 4 Comm. on S. Asian Women Bull. 16-20 (1986).
86. Chilla Bullbeck, Less than Overwhelmed by Beijing: Problems Concerning Women's Commonality and Diversity, 6 Austl. Feminist L. J. 3 (1996).
87. Fazlur Rahman, Islam & Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition 4-9(1982).
88. Asghar Ali Engineer, The Rights of Women in Islam 45 (1996).
89. Wan Mohd Wan Nor Daud, The Concept of Knowledge in Islam and its Implications for Education in a Developing Country 7 (1989).
90. Qudsia Mirza, Islamic Feminism and the Exemplary Past, in Feminist Perspectives on Law and Theory 198 (Janice Richardson & Ralph Sandlin eds., 2000).
91. Amina Wadud, Qur'an and Woman: Rereading the Sacred Text from a Woman's Perspective 5 (1999).
92. The method of gradualism runs throughout the Koranic reforms and teachings.
93. Azizah al-Hibri, Islam, Law and Custom: Redefining Muslim Women's Rights, 12 Am. U. J. Int'l L. & Pol'y 3 (1997).
94. Id.
95. Riffat Hassan, consultation paper, Members, One of Another: Gender Equality and Justice in Islam, available at www.religiousconsultation.org/hassan.htm.
96. Id.
97. Fatima Mernissi, Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics int the Modern Muslim Society 18 (1985).
98. See Hassan, supra note 92.
99. Koran, supra note 26, Sura 49, verse 13.
100. Id. Sura 74, verse 38.
101. Id. Sura 46, verse 19.
102. Id. Sura 6, verse 151.
103. Azizah Al-Hibri, A Study of Islamic Herstory: or How did We Ever Get into this Mess? in Women and Islam 212 (Azizah Al-Hibri ed., 1982).
104. Koran, supra note 26, Sura 17, verse 70.
105. Id. Sura 95, verse 4.
106. Id. Sura 24, verse 27.
107. For a detailed study on this see Eli Alshech, "Do Not Enter Houses Other Than Your Own": The Evolution of the Notion of a Private Domestic Sphere in Early Sunni Islamic Thought, 11 Islamic L. & Society 291 (July 2004).
108. Koran, supra note 26, Sura 4, verse 7.
109. Id. Sura 2, verse 188.
110. Id. Sura 62, verse 10.
111. Id. Sura 4, verse 32.
112. Id. Sura 3, verse 79;
113. see also Khalid Ishaque, Human Rights in Islamic Law, 12 Rev. Int'l Comm'n Jurists 34 (1974).
114. Koran, supra note 26, Sura 5, verse 8.
115. Id. Sura 4, verse 135.
116. Id. Sura 96, verse 1.
117. Id. Sura 96, verse 4.
118. Id. Sura 96, verse 5.
119. Id. Sura 42, verse 38.
120. Id. Sura 3, verse 159.
121. Id. Sura 2, verse 256.
122. Id. Sura 16, verse 125.
123. Id. Sura 18, verse 29.
124. Id. Sura 50, verse 45.
125. Id. Sura 4, verse 34.
126. Barbara Stowasser, Women in the Quran, Traditions and Interpretation 38 (1994).
127. Baydawi, cited in Stowasser, Gender Issues, supra note 25, at 33.
128. Tabri, cited in Stowasser, Gender Issues, supra note 25, at 33.
129. Abduh, cited in Stowasser, Gender Issues, supra note 25, at 35.
130. Asghar Ali Engineer, The Rights of Women in Islam 45 (1996).
131. See Al-Hibri, supra note 100, at 217.
132. Id. at 218.
133. Koran, supra note 26, at 195, n. 545.
134. Parveen Shaukat Ali, Status of Women in the Muslim World 17 (1975).
135. Betty Mistead, Feminist Theology and Women in the Muslim World: An interview with Riffat Hassan, Women Living Under Muslim Laws Dossier No. 4, Aug./Sept. 1988, at 31, 32, available at www.wluml.org/english/pubs/ pdf/dossier4/D4-07-islam.pdf.
136. Al-Faruqi, cited in Stowasser, Gender Issues, supra note 25, at 39.
137. Al-Hibri, A Study of Islamic Herstory, supra note 100, at 218.
138. See Wadud, supra note 88, at 71.
139. Al-Hibri, supra note 100, at 218.
140. Koran, supra note 26, Sura 4, verse 82.
141. Id. Sura 4, verse 3.
142. Wadud, supra note 88, at 83.
143. Koran, supra note 26, at 184, n.508
144. See Wadud, supra note 88, at 83: Wadud argues that this verse mainly related to justice, just dealing, managing funds justly, just dealing with wives etc.
145. Stowasser, supra note 25.
146. Murtaza Mutahhery, Women and her rights 240 (1982).
147. Id. at 249.
148. Ali, Status of Women in the Muslim World, supra note 129, at 23.
149. See Mutahhery, supra note 140.
150. Koran, supra note 26, Sura 4, verse 129.
151. See Al-Hibri, supra note 100, at 216.
152. Raga' El-Nimr, Women in Islamic Law, in Feminism and Islam: Legal and literary Perspecives 100 (Mai Yamani ed., 1996).
153. Id. at 101.
154. John L. Esposito & Natana J. DeLong-Bas, Women in Muslim Family Law 29 (2d ed. 2001).
155. Koran, supra note 26, Sura 4, verse 20.
156. Mernissi, supra note 94, at 49.
157. A Handbook on Family Law in Pakistan 44 (Cassandra Balchin ed., 2d ed. 1994).
158. Mernissi, supra note 94, at 61: Mernissi uses "tamlik" instead of talaq-e-tafwaz.
159. Koran, supra note 26, Sura 33, verse 28.
160. Abdul Rahim, Muhammadan Jurisprudence 328 (1911).
161. See Al-Hibri, supra note 100, at 217.
162. See Esposito & DeLong-Bas, supra note 148, at 29.
163. See Wadud, supra note 88, at 80.
164. Koran, supra note 26, Sura 128, verse 1.
165. Id. Sura 2, verse 228 (emphasis added).
166. Id. Sura 2, verse 229 (emphasis added).
167. Id. Sura 2, verse 231 (emphasis added).
168. Id. Sura 65, verse 2 (emphasis added).
169. Id. Sura 4, verse 129.
170. Id.
171. Abdul Majid v. Government of Pakistan, PLD (All Pakistan Legal Decisions) 2004, FSC (Federal Shariat Court) 1 (Pak. 2003).
172. Koran, supra note 26, Sura 4, verse 11.
173. Id. Sura 4, verse 12.
174. Muhammad Qutb, Islam the Misunderstood Religion 197 (1964).
175. See El-Nimr, supra note 146, at 100.
176. Abul Ala Maududi, Tafehim-ul-Quran 326 (1987), (trans. from Urdu by Author).
177. See Wadud, supra note 88, at 87.
178. Zainab Chaudhry, The Myth of Misogyny: A Reanalysis of Women's Inheritance in Islamic Law, 61 Albany L. Rev. 511, 529-30 (1997).
179. She has mainly relied on the work of Hamid Khan, Islamic Law of Inheritance: A Comparative Study with Emphasis on Contemporary Problem (1980).
180. Chaudhry, supra note 172.
181. Qazi Fazal Ahmed v. Riaz-Ur-Rahim, SCMR 432 (Pak. 2004).
182. Wadud, supra note 88, at 80.
183. Id.
184. Koran, supra note 26, Sura 2, verse 180.
185. Wadud, supra note 88, at 88.
186. Riaz Ullah Khan v. Asghar Ali, SCMR 1701 (Pak. 2004).
187. Id.
188. Koran, supra note 26, Sura 2, verse 282 (emphasis added).
189. Nazirah Zein En-Din, Removing the Veil and Veiling, in Women's Studies International Forum 224 (Azizah Al-Hibri ed., 1982).
190. Aftab Hussain, Status of Women in Islam 244-45 (1987)(emphasis added).
191. Id.
192. See Wadud, supra note 88, at 85.
193. See Mohammed Fadel, Two Women, One Man: Knowledge, Power, and Gender in Medieval Sunni Legal Thought, 29 Int'l J. Middle East Stud. 187 (1997)(citing Qutb).
194. Koran, supra note 26, Sura 95, verse 4.
195. Id. at 1670, n. 6199.
196. Fadel, supra note 186, (internal citations omitted).
197. Id.
198. See Wadud, supra note 88.
199. Id.
200. Fazlur Rahman, Major Themes in the Quran 49 (1980).
201. Koran, supra note 26, Sura 24, verse 6.
202. Id. Sura 24, verse 7.
203. Id. Sura 24, verse 8.
204. Id. Sura 24, verse 9.
205. See Hussain, supra note 183, at 282.
206. Koran, supra note 26, Sura 12, verse 25-29.
207. The seven verses Hussain analyzed are: id. Sura 5, verse 106
208. id. Sura 65, verse 2
209. id. Sura 4, verse 15
210. id. Sura 4, verse 6
211. id. Sura 24, verse 4
212. id. Sura 24, verse 6-9
213. id. Sura 2, verse 282.
214. Hussain, supra note 183, at 289.
215. Koran, supra note 26, Sura 65, verse 2.
216. Hussain, supra note 183, at 280.
217. Rafi Ullah Shahab, Diyat of Women in Islamic Law, 32 All Pakistan Legal Decisions (PLD) 82, at 85-86 (1984).
218. Koran, supra note 26, Sura 4, verse 135.
219. Id. Sura 2, verse 42.
220. William Shakespeare, Julius Caesar act 1, sc. 2.