The slow swim from extinction: Saving turtles in the South Pacific

International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law

Volumn 21, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 57-82

  Gillespie, Alexander ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WAIKATO   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION; EXTINCTION; MARINE POLICY; REGIONAL POLICY; SPECIES CONSERVATION; TURTLE;

PACIFIC OCEAN; PACIFIC OCEAN (SOUTH);

CHELONIIDAE; TESTUDINES;

EID: 33751080739     PISSN: 09273522     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/157180806776639484     Document Type: Article

References (322)

1. The updated version of the RMTCP was set down at the Sixth Regional Meeting for the Regional Marine Turtle Conservation Programme (RMTCP), 24-26 February 2003, Apia, Samoa.
2. See C. Gans and R. Huey, The Biology of Reptilia (New York, Wiley, 1985), vol. 16, pp. 389-421.
3. The olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), Kemp's ridley (Lepidochelys kempi), the leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), the loggerhead (Caretta caretta), the Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and the Pacific black turtle (Chelonia agassizi).
4. See CMS, "Proceedings of the Fourth Meeting of the Parties" (Bonn, CMS Secretariat, 1994), p. 115
5. P. Craig, "Sea Turtles: A Vanishing Resource in American Samoa", (1993) Marine Turtle Newsletter 61, 13-15
6. R. James, "Olive Ridley Turtles and Leatherbacks Found in the Solomons", (1977) Marine Turtle Newsletter 2, 2-3
7. J. Naughton, "Sea Turtle Survey in the Federated States of Micronesia", (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 55, 9-12
8. P. Craig, "Sea Turtles Migrate from American Samoa to Fiji", (1994) Marine Turtle Newsletter 66, 7-8.
9. A. Rudloe, "In A Race for Survival", (1994) National Geographic 97, 101.
10. The Atlantic coast of Africa, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Cape of Good Hope, including Macaronesia, are "seriously threatened": Memorandum of Understanding Concerning Conservation Measures for Marine Turtles of the Atlantic Coast of Africa, (2000) 39 International Legal Materials 1, Preamble: "The sea turtles of around the Americas are 'threatened or endangered, and ... some of these species may face an imminent risk of extinction'"
11. Inter-American Convention For The Protection And Conservation of Sea Turtles - this Convention is reprinted in the (2002) 5 Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 1, 157-163, Preamble.
12. Likewise, it has been accepted that the sea turtles of the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Panama, in the absence of adequate protection and management, "will not survive commercial exploitation, due to the increasing demand by human populations and other economic activities of the Caribbean coast of the three countries": Co-operative Agreement for the Conservation of Sea Turtles of the Caribbean Coast of Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Panama, reprinted in 3 Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 2, 179-189, Preamble.
13. IUCN, "A Global Strategy for the Conservation of Marine Turtles" (Geneva, IUCN, 1995), p. 3.
14. CMS, "Proceedings of the First Meeting of the Conference of the Parties" (Bonn, CMS Secretariat, 1985), pp. 10-12, 28, 112. Note that many of these were also split listings and, as such, were also listed on Appendix II.
15. RMTCP, note 1 above, ss. 1-3. This will be done via, inter alia, the assessment of key stocks, the establishment of regional turtle databases, shared tag data and standardised field data on genetic stock identification and composition, population structure, location of nesting and foraging areas, timing of breeding and nesting and identification, and evaluation of threats.
16. Mexico was the first country to protect turtle eggs in 1927. See S. Namnum, "The Inter-American Convention and Its Implementation in Mexico", (2002) 5 Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 1, 87-185.
17. IUCN (1968) Resolutions, reprinted in A. Ruster (ed.), International Protection of the Environment (New York, Oceana), vol. v, pp. 2448, 2449.
18. Z. Kuller, "Current Status and Conservation of Marine Turtles in Israel", (1999) Marine Turtle Newsletter 86, 3-5.
19. See C. Wold, "The Status of Sea Turtles Under International Environmental Law", (2002) 5 Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 1, 11-49.
20. Official Text of the 1983 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Art. 51, (1982) 21 ILM 1261.
21. Art. 56(1)(a).
22. Convention on Biodiversity, UNEP/Bio Div/CONF 12, Art. 3, (1992) 31 ILM 954.
23. See Art. 65.
24. See Art. 120.
25. Art. 64(1). See also M. Dahmani, The Fisheries Regime of the Exclusive Economic Zone (London, Nijhoff, 1987), pp. 42-50
26. D. Johnston, The International Law of Fisheries: A Framework for Policy Orientated Inquiries (New Haven, Nijhoff, 1988), p. lxxi. In part, this principle helped lead to the development of the 1995 Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the LOSC Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (A/CONF. 164/37 of 8 September 1995). Although sea turtles were not listed in the Annex of the LOSC as a highly migratory species, and the 1995 Agreement was clearly for fish stocks, the broad principles of the LOSC with regard to migratory stocks still merit consideration.
27. Art. 61(2) and (4).
28. See Art. 5 of the Apia Convention. Reprinted in C. Kiss (ed.), Selected Multilateral Treaties in the Field of the Environment (Cambridge University Press, 1980), p. 463.
29. See Art. 14 of the Noumea Convention. Reprinted in I. Rummel-Bulska (ed.), Selected Multilateral Treaties in the Field of the Environment (Cambridge University Press, 1990), vol. II.
30. At http://www.oceanlaw.net/texts/medturtles.htm.
31. This Convention is reprinted in (2002) 5 Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 1, 157-163
32. http://www.oceanlaw.net/texts/turtles1.htm
33. E. Naor, "The Inter-American Convention: An Historical Overview", (1998) 1 Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 1, 169-170.
34. This Agreement is reprinted in (2002) 5 Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 1, 157-163
35. Anon., "Transfrontier Turtle Sanctuary", (1996) 16 Traffic Bulletin 2, 41.
36. Also reprinted in 3 Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 2, 179-189
37. http://www.oceanlaw.net/texts/turtles2.htm
38. D. Chacon, "Central American Workshop on Sea Turtle Conservation", (1998) Marine Turtle Newsletter 79, 24-25.
39. See also K. Eckert, "Caribbean Nations Vote to Protect Turtles", (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 54, 3-4
40. K. Eckert, "Marine Turtle Conservation in the Wider Caribbean Region", (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 94, 12-13.
41. (1990) UKTS 87. See generally, D. Hykle, "The Convention on Migratory Species and Other Instruments Relevant to Marine Turtle Conservation", (2002) 5 Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 1, 105-121.
42. "Parties are encouraged to take action with a view to concluding agreements for any population or any geographically separate part of the population of any species or lower taxon of wild animals, members of which periodically cross one or more national jurisdictional boundaries" (Art. IV(4)). Art. V sets out the guidelines for any such agreement.
43. CMS, "Proceedings of the Third Meeting of the Parties" (Bonn, Secretariat, 1991), p. 50
44. CMS, "Proceedings of the Fourth Meeting of the Parties" (Bonn, Secretariat, 1994), pp. 17, 115-116
45. CMS, "Proceedings of the Fifth Meeting of the Parties" (Bonn, Secretariat, 1997), p. 135
46. Recommendation 6.6: "Regional Co-ordination for Marine Turtles of the Indian Ocean and South-East Asia", CMS, "Proceedings of the Sixth Conference of the Parties" (Bonn, Secretariat, 1999), p. 43.
47. The Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation and Management of Marine Turtles and their Habitats of the Indian Ocean and South-East Asia. Reprinted in 3 Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 2, 188-190, also available at http://www.oceanlaw.net/texts/ turtles_mou2.htm
48. R. Trono, "ASEAN Symposium Workshop on Sea Turtle Conservation", (1995) Marine Turtle Newsletter 71, 22-23.
49. The Memorandum of Understanding Concerning Conservation Measures for Marine Turtles of the Atlantic Coast of Africa, (2000) 39 ILM 1.
50. CMS, "Proceedings of the Sixth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties" (Bonn, Secretariat, 1999), p. 17.
51. CMS, "Proceedings of the Sixth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties" (Bonn, Secretariat, 1999), p. 46.
52. By 2003, six review meetings of the programme had been undertaken. The purpose of the reviews was to put together action strategies and to update the region on the progress of the last actions. The sixth meeting occurred in 2003, and established a revised RMTCP Strategic Action Plan 2003-05 (which is drawn from in this paper).
53. 1997-2001 Strategic Plan, as noted in SPREP Annual Report 1995-96 (Apia, SPREP, 1996), p. 14. This vision is also the vision of the Working Draft: RMTCP Strategic Action Plan 2003-05.
54. See SPREP, 1995-96 Annual Report (Apia, SPREP, 1996), p. 14.
55. See SPREP, 1998 Annual Report (Apia, SPREP, 1999), pp. 4-5.
56. CMS, "Proceedings of the Fifth Meeting of the Parties" (Bonn, Secretariat, 1997), p. 135.
57. SPREP, "Canada Continues Efforts to Save the Pacific's Sea Turtles", Press Release, 11 September 2000.
58. See SPREP, Report of the 12th SPREP Meeting of Officials (Apia, SPREP, 2002), pp. 12-13.
59. Resolutions of the Second Meeting and Workshop of the Regional Turtle Conservation Programme (RMTCP). Reprinted in (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 57, 12-15.
60. For the debate about the virtues of a CMS Agreement or Memorandum of Understanding, as opposed to initiatives based under more regional legislation, see A. Gillespie, "The Dynamics of a Regional Whale Sanctuary", Asia Pacific Journal of Environmental Law (forthcoming).
61. CMS, "Proceedings of the Sixth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties" (Bonn, Secretariat, 1999), p. 16
62. Editor, "Australian Minister for Environment Calls on Australian Neighbours to Help Save Turtles", (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 54, 37
63. D. Hykle, "The Convention on Migratory Species and Marine Turtle Conservation", (2000) Marine Turtle Newsletter 87, 1-3.
64. CMS, "Proceedings of the Sixth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties" (Bonn, Secretariat, 1999), p. 106.
65. CMS, "Proceedings of the Seventh Meeting of the Parties" (Bonn, Secretariat, 2003), p. 23.
66. See MoU on the Conservation and Management of Marine Turtles and Their Habitats of the Indian Ocean and South-East Asia, Interpretation and Possible Extension of the MoU's Geographical Scope (MT-IOSEA/SS.2./ Doc.11.1 of 12 February 2004). This has been buttressed by the Bellagio Blueprint for Action on Pacific Sea Turtles (2004) which contains very similar principles to the RMTCP, but is more in accordance with CMS and other regional turtle agreement practices. It is not the author's intention to critique the Bellagio plan or the idea of the Indian Ocean MoU, trying to encompass the South Pacific.
67. Art. 61, para. 4. See also Art. 119(1)(b).
68. Agenda 21, Chapter 17, paras. 17.46(c), 17.50, 17.74, 17.87.
69. 1995 United Nations Conference on Straddling Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks, Art. 6(5), (1995) 34 ILM 1542.
70. For a full list of all of the applicable conventions and instruments, see A. Gillespie, "Wasting the Oceans: Searching For Principles to Control Bycatch in International Law", (2002) 17 IJMCL 2, 161-193.
71. Res. 6.2, "Bycatch", reprinted in "Proceedings of the Sixth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties" (Bonn, CMS Secretariat, 1999), vol. 1, p. 36
72. CMS Res. 7.15, "Bycatch", UNEP/CMS/Res.7.15.
73. See Annex II of the Report to the Secretariat (UNEP/CMS/Conf.5.9), (2000) CMS Bulletin 10 (April), 16
74. (1997) Report of the Second Meeting of the Parties to ASCOBANS, p. 59.
75. The Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Seas, Mediterranean Sea, (1997) 36 ILM 777.
76. CMS, "Proceedings of the Sixth Meeting of the Parties" (Bonn, Secretariat, 1999), pp. 106-107
77. CMS Res. 7.15, "Bycatch", UNEP/CMS/Res.7.15
78. Recommendation 6.6: "Regional Co-ordination for Marine Turtles of the Indian Ocean and South-East Asia", CMS, "Proceedings of the Sixth Conference of the Parties" (Bonn, Secretariat, 1999), p. 43.
79. National Research Council, The Decline of Sea Turtles: Causes and Prevention (Washington, National Academy Press, 1990);
80. R. Ovetz, "100,000 Years Old and 10 Years Left to Live", (2004) Ecologist, March issue, 48-51
81. M. Guinea, "Sea Turtles Killed in Australian Shark Fin Fishery", (1992) Marine Turtle Newsletter 57, 5-6
82. S. Hare, "Turtles Caught Incidental to Demersal Finfish Fishery in Oman", (1991) Marine Turtle Newsletter 53, 14-16
83. L. Venizelos, "Incidental Catch a Continuing Problem in the Mediterranean", (1991) Marine Turtle Newsletter 53, 10
84. J. Frazier, "Incidental Capture of Marine Turtles in Chile", (1990) Marine Turtle Newsletter 49, 8-13
85. M. White, "Observation of Accidental Capture of a Loggerhead Turtle By Hand-Line Fishing in Greece", (2002) Marine Turtle Newsletter 98, 8
86. B. Pandav, "Mortality of Olive Ridley Turtles Due to Incidental Capture in Fishing Nets Along the Orissa Coast", (1997) 31 Oryx 1, 32-35
87. K. Shanker, "Marine Turtle Conservation in South and Southeast Asia: Hopeless Cause or Cause for Hope?", (2003) Marine Turtle Newsletter 100, 43-51
88. M. Guinea, "Sea Turtle Deaths Coincide With Trawling In Australia", (1997) Marine Turtle Newsletter 77, 11-14.
89. See P.L. Lutz and J.A. Musick, The Biology of Sea Turtles (London, Allen and Unwin, 1996), pp. 385-387.
90. See IATTC Resolution on Bycatch (June 2000).
91. See M. Weber et al., Delay and Denial: A Political History of Sea Turtles and Shrimp Fishing (San Francisco, Earth Island, 1995), pp. 1-46
92. also, Anon., "Porpoise-Built Nets", (2001) New Scientist, 6 January issue, 7.
93. D. Crouse, "TEDs Required in all US Shrimping Vessels", (1993) Marine Turtle Newsletter 61, 3-5
94. J. Mitchell, "TEDs Technology Transfer to Latin American Shrimp Fisheries", (2001) Marine Turtle Newletter 56, 5-7
95. Editor, "More Good News on TED", (1986) Marine Turtle Newsletter 37, 10-11
96. C. Oravetz, "The TED Technology Transfer Programme", (1984) Marine Turtle Newsletter 27, 6-7.
97. D. Crouse, "TEDS Fall Victim to Election Year Politics", (2001 Marine Turtle Newsletter 59, 1-12.
98. See the 1989 Conservation of Sea Turtles: Importation of Shrimp Law. This was a rider to the 1989 Appropriations Bill, and required foreign nations to be certified as having sea turtle conservation standards comparable to the USA in order to import shrimp. For a discussion of the development of this area, see E. Benson, "Sea Turtle Conservation: An Illegal Trade Barrier?", (2003) 33 Environmental Policy and the Law 2, 75-78.
99. See "United States: Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products. Recourse to Article 21.5 of the DSU By Malaysia", (2002) 41 ILM 149
100. "United States: Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products", (1999) 38 ILM 118
101. "United States: Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp Products", (1988) 37 ILM 834.
102. See, e.g., R. Zarne, "Moratorium Declared on Trawling in Kenyan Waters", (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 91, 14.
103. This Agreement is reprinted in (2002) 5 Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 1, 157-163.
104. Preamble.
105. Para. O.
106. At http://www.oceanlaw.net/texts/medturtles.htm, paras. 2, 8, 10 and A3.
107. See Art. XV of the Inter-American Convention, note 24 above.
108. See Art. IV of the Inter-American Convention, note 24 above.
109. RMTCP, note 1 above, s. 3(e).
110. CONF.9/20 (Rev.), "Guidelines For Evaluating Marine Turtle Ranching Proposals Submitted Pursuant to Resolution CONF.11/16".
111. "Conservation Of and Trade In Tortoises and Freshwater Turtles", CONF. 11/9 (Rev. COP12).
112. See also M. Jenkins, Tortoises and Freshwater Turtles: The Trade in Southeast Asia (Cambridge, Traffic, 1995)
113. Editor, "Report of the Eleventh CITES Meeting", (2000) 18 Traffic Bulletin 3, 110
114. Editor, "The 12th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties", (2003) 19 TRAFFIC 3, 122, 127.
115. I. Uchida, "Imports of Hawksbill Turtle Shell Into Japan", (1977) Marine Turtle Newsletter 2, 1-2
116. D. ????, "World-Wide Trade in Wild Sea Turtle Products: An Update", (1983) Marine Turtle Newsletter 24, 10-15
117. N. Mrosovsky, "Report on the 6th CITES Meeting", (1987) Marine Turtle Newsletter 41, 3
118. Editor, "How CITES Benefits Sea Turtles", (1989) Marine Turtle Newsletter 46, 11-14
119. J. Canin, "Reflections on the 1989 CITES Meeting", (1990) Marine Turtle Newsletter 48, 11-12
120. N. Mrosovsky, "Report from Lausanne", (1990) Marine Turtle Newsletter 48, 10-11.
121. C. ????, "More Protection Needed for Turtles in Asia", (2000) TRAFFIC Dispatches 13, 1-2
122. M. Lopez, "New Kind of Illegal Trade of Marine Turtles in Uruguay", (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 91, 10
123. Anon., "Turtle Tragedy", (1999) Scientific American, June issue, 22;
124. Editor, "Seizures and Prosecutions", (2002) 19 Traffic Bulletin 2, 76-79
125. T. Steiner, "Illegal Trade In Sea Turtle Products Between the United States and Mexico", (1994) Marine Turtle Newsletter 66, 15-16
126. S. Fisher, "Illegal Turtle Trade in Sri Lanka", (1995) Marine Turtle Newsletter 71, 10-11.
127. M. Donnelly, "Japan Bans Import of Hawksbill Shell", (1991) Marine Turtle Newsletter 54, 1-3
128. Editor, "CITES Update", (1991) Marine Turtle Newsletter 55, 14
129. T. Steiner, "Japan Hawksbill Import Ban: Too Early to Rest on Our Laurels", (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 56, 24-26
130. Editor, "Japan Withdraws CITES Reservation", (1994) Marine Turtle Newsletter 67, 2.
131. See Editor, "CITES Proposals", (2000) 18 Traffic Bulletin 2, 6062
132. F. Pearce, "Worth Protecting", (2000) New Scientist, 22 April issue, 19
133. Editor, "Report of the Eleventh CITES Meeting", (2000) 18 Traffic Bulletin 3, 110, re COP XII, Decision 12.44, "Hawksbill Turtle"
134. A. Reuter, "Common Ground Found At First CITES Wider Caribbean Hawksbill Turtle Dialogue", (2001) TRAFFIC Dispatches 17, 1-2
135. Editor, "CITES Proposals" (2002) 19 Traffic Bulletin 2, 62-63, re COP XII, Decision 12.44, "Hawksbill Turtle"
136. Editor, "The 12th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties", (2003) 19 TRAFFIC 3, 123, 125.
137. A. Rudloe, "In A Race for Survival", (1994) National Geographic 97, 118.
138. T. Daly, "Fiji Bans Export of Turtle Shell", (1991) Marine Turtle Newsletter 52, 1.
139. J. Canin, "The Japanese Hawksbill Shell Industry", (1991) Marine Turtle Newsletter 54, 17-21.
140. Resolutions of the Second Meeting and Workshop of the Regional Turtle Conservation Programme (RMTCP). Reprinted in (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 57, 12-15.
141. Anon., "Sea Turtle Products A Burning Issue", (1996) 16 Traffic Bulletin 1, 7
142. A. Highfield, "The Trade in Tortoise-Derived Products in Morocco", (1996) 16 Traffic Bulletin 1, 33-35.
143. See SPREP, "Officers to Meet Over Marine Threat", Press Release, 21 February 2003.
144. Inter-American Convention For The Protection And Conservation Of Sea Turtles. This Convention is reprinted in (2002) 5 Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 1, 157-163, also at http://www.oceanlaw.net/texts/turtles1.htm, Art. IV. See also para. 1 of the Conservation and Management Plan for Marine Turtles in the Indian Ocean and South-East Asian Region.
145. For a full examination, see A. Gillespie, International Environmental Law, Policy and Ethics (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1997), Chapter 8.
146. See A. Gillespie, "Aboriginal Subsistence Whaling: A Critique of the Inter-Relationship Between International Law and the International Whaling Commission", (2001) 21 Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy 1, 79-139.
147. World Summit on Sustainable Development, Plan of Implementation, A/CONF. 199/L1, para. 6(e). The "vital role" quote comes from para. 25 of the Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development.
148. All marine turtle eggs have pliable, parchment-like shells and are typically spherical, although not turgid at oviposition. When laid, they are typically creamy-white, and if left to their own devices usually have a fertility rate in excess of 80%. Unfortunately for them, they are also usually quite rich in protein and attractive to eat; see C. Gans and R. Huey, The Biology of Reptilia (NY, Wiley, 1985), vol. 14, pp. 275-317.
149. However, from the ecological perspective, it has not become apparent that turtle eggs are very important and cannot be ignored in recovery plans. Accordingly, if cultural exceptions for the lethal utilisation of sea turtles or their eggs are to exist, the issue of tight limits on the collection of eggs needs to be closely scrutinised: S. Heppel, "On the Importance of Eggs", (1997) Marine Turtle Newsletter 76, 6-8.
150. CMS, "Proceedings of the Fourth Meeting of the Parties" (Bonn, Secretariat, 1994), p. 115.
151. This Plan prohibits all lethal exploitation. See at http://www.oceanlaw.net/texts/medturtles.htm, paras. 2, 8, A18 and 19.
152. This Plan contains a commitment to protect all adult turtles but says nothing about eggs. The Agreement is reprinted in (2002) 5 Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 1, 157-163.
153. The 1989 IUCN Resolution in reprinted in Marine Turtle Newsletter 44, 1-3.
154. Reprinted in (2002) 5 Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 1, 189-193, Basic Principle 3.
155. Reprinted in 3 Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 2, 179-189, Fifth Principle.
156. Para. 1.
157. Inter-American Convention, note 24 above, Art. IV(3).
158. IUCN, "A Global Strategy for the Conservation of Marine Turtles" (Geneva, IUCN, 1995), p. 3.
159. CMS, Art. III(5)(c).
160. See UNEP (2001), "New Insight Into Africa's Rich But Threatened Sea Turtle Resource", Press Release 01/92.
161. Recommendation 7.6, "Improving the Conservation Status of the Leatherback Turtle", CMS, "Proceedings of the Seventh Meeting of the Parties" (Bonn, Secretariat, 2002).
162. RMTCP, note 1 above, ss. 3E and G, and 5A.
163. IUCN, "A Global Strategy for the Conservation of Marine Turtles" (Geneva, IUCN, 1995), p. 3
164. C. Limpus, "Mangroves in the Diet", (2000) Marine Turtle Newsletter 89, 13-15
165. K. Pendoley, "Browsing of Mangroves by Green Turtles in Western Australia", (1999) Marine Turtle Newsletter 84, 10
166. D. Evans, "US NMFS Rejects Proposed Ban on the Harvest of Sargassum Seaweed", (2000) Marine Turtle Newsletter 87, 3
167. M. Frick, "How Will the Harvest of Sargassum Seaweed Impact?", (2000) Marine Turtle Newsletter 90, 11-13
168. T. Fritts, "Pelagic Feeding Habits of Turtles in the Eastern Pacific", (1981) Marine Turtle Newsletter 17, 4-5.
169. IUCN (1968) Resolutions, reprinted in A. Ruster (ed.), International Protection of the Environment (NY, Oceana), vol. v, pp. 2448, 2449.
170. UNEP, "GEO 2000" (London, Earthscan, 2000), pp. 86, 130.
171. See E. Claussen, "Critical Coastlines", (1997) 8 Our Planet 5, 1-5
172. UNEP, "Global Biodiversity Assessment" (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 381-387;
173. D. MacKenzie, "Coral is Dying to Tell Us Something", (2000) New Scientist, 16 September issue
174. I. Anderson, "Great Barren Reefs", New Scientist, 10 July issue, 12
175. F. Pearce, "Coral Crumbles", (1999) New Scientist, 24 April issue, 13
176. M. Watson, "Too Darn Hot", New Scientist, 4 November issue, 24
177. Commission on Sustainable Development, Oceans and Seas, Report of the Secretary General (E/CN. 17/1999/4)
178. World Resources Institute, "Reefs at Risk: A Map-Based Indicator of Threats to the World's Coral Reefs" (Washington DC, WRI, 1998).
179. IPCC, "Climate Change and Biodiversity" (Geneva, IPCC, 2003), Technical Paper V, pp. 31-34
180. IPCC, "Third Assessment Report: Summary for Policy Makers" (Geneva, IPCC, 2001), pp. 2, 11
181. W. Broecker, "Thermohaline Circulation: The Achilles Heel of our Climate System?", (1997) Science 278, 1582-1588
182. F. Pearce, "Grief on the Reef", (2002) New Scientist, 20 April issue, 11
183. M. Schrope, "Corals Face Catastrophe", (2000) New Scientist, 27 May issue, 8
184. F. Pearce, "It's Started", (2002) New Scientist, 30 March issue, 11
185. Anon., "The World's Coral Reefs In Hot Water", (1999) 29 Ecologist 3, 1
186. M. Cocker, "Coral Reefs Don't Like It Hot", Guardian Weekly, 19 December 1999, p. 32
187. L. Dicks, "Worm Brings Death to Coral", (2003) New Scientist, 12 April issue, 16.
188. Note the very tentative nature of these conclusions, as changes related to global warming, such as increased storms, hurricanes etc., are still a matter of debate: Editor, "Hurricane Pauline Destroyed 40 Million Sea Turtle Eggs", (1997) Marine Turtle Newsletter 78, 26
189. E. Martin, "Storm Impacts on Loggerhead Turtle Reproductive Success", (1996) Marine Turtle Newsletter 73, 10-12.
190. CBD, Art. 8.
191. Decision II/10 on Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine and Coastal Biodiversity. For the follow-up to this within the CBD, see (1997) YBIEL 8, 287. In 1998, at the Fourth CBD COP, Decision IV/5, entitled "Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine and Coastal Biological Diversity", was passed. This was based primarily on the Jakarta Mandate. The Jakarta Mandate was supported at the World Summit on Sustainable Development. See para. 31(b) and (e).
192. The International Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, (1996) 11 ILM 693. In 1996, RAMSAR passed a series of recommendations on the conservation and wise use of coral reefs and related ecosystems (Rec. 6.7), the importance of strategic planning in coastal zones (Rec. 6.11) as well as some specific recommendations on the conservation of coastal wetlands in the Mediterranean and Pacific Islands (Rec. 6.18).
193. The Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities (A/51/116, Annex II), available from UNEP, (1995) YBIEL 6, 245.
194. GPA, ibid., para. 151.
195. Res. 2001-11, "Resolution on the Importance of Habitat Protection and Integrated Coastal Zone Management", IWC 53rd Report (2002), p. 59.
196. The 1990 Agreement on the Conservation of Seals in the Wadden Sea, reprinted in M. Austen, Basic Legal Documents on International Animal Welfare and Wildlife Conservation (the Netherlands, Kluwer, 2002), pp. 292-296, Art. VII.
197. See the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Seas, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Area, (1997) 36 ILM 777, Art. II.3.
198. At http://www.oceanlaw.net/texts/medturtles.htm, paras. 2, 8 and 10. The Plan was revised in 1999.
199. Annexes 6 and 7.
200. Paras. j-k.
201. Annex II, Protection And Conservation Of Sea Turtle Habitats.
202. Memorandum of Understanding Concerning Conservation Measures for Marine Turtles of the Atlantic Coast of Africa, (2000) 39 ILM 1, para. 1, following Preamble.
203. CONF.9.20 (Rev.), "Guidelines for Evaluating Marine Turtle Ranching Proposals Submitted Pursuant to Res. CONF.11.16".
204. Annex A, "Conservation and Research Programmes For the Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Area".
205. Annex II, "Protection And Conservation Of Sea Turtle Habitats".
206. See the 1989 IUCN Resolution reprinted in Marine Turtle Newsletter 44, 1-3.
207. Annex II, "Protection And Conservation Of Sea Turtle Habitats".
208. D. Dimopoulos, "The National Marine Park of Zakynthos", (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 93, 5-9
209. Anon., "Woongarra Marine Park is Declared to Protect Turtles", (1992) Marine Turtle Newsletter 57, 28
210. C. Limpus, "New National Parks Protecting Turtle Habitat in Queensland", (1980) Marine Turtle Newsletter 15, 11-12
211. H. Hutabaret, "Hawksbill Turtle in Kepulauan Marine National Park", (1994) Marine Turtle Newsletter 64, 12-13
212. Anon., "Turtle Park in Bali", (1981) Marine Turtle Newsletter 17, 8
213. J. Woody, "Mexico Establishes Sea Turtle Refuge", (1986) Marine Turtle Newsletter 39, 9
214. Anon., "Gahirmatha Beach Declared a Sanctuary", (1996) Marine Turtle Newsletter 79, 3-4.
215. Recommendation 5.5, "Climate Change and Its Implications for the Bonn Convention", CMS, "Proceedings of the Fifth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties" (Bonn, Secretariat, 1997), p. 122
216. "Climate Change and Migratory Species", (2001) CMS Bulletin 14, 2-3.
217. See the Ocean Policy for the Pacific Islands (SPREP, 2001), pp. 22-23, 29-32.
218. See A. Gillespie, "Small Island States and Climate Change", UCLA Journal of Environmental Law (forthcoming).
219. Noumea Convention, note 22 above, Art. 14.
220. RMTCP, note 1 above, s. 3(e) and (d).
221. See A. Gillespie, "Environmental Threats to Cetaceans and the Limits of Existing Management Structures", (2003) 6 NZ Journal of Environmental Law 97-139.
222. Editor, "Incidence of Turtles With Tumours Increasing", (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 51, 8-9
223. J. Ruenda, "Dying Turtle in Columbian Waters Still A Mystery", (1990) Marine Turtle Newsletter 50, 4-6
224. J. Davenport, "Metal and PCB Concentrations in the Leatherback", (1990) Marine Turtle Newsletter 48, 1-6
225. J. Fletemeyer, "A Preliminary Analysis of Sea Turtle Eggs for DDE", (1980) Marine Turtle Newsletter 15, 6-7.
226. Editor, "Oil Spill in Persian Gulf Threatens Sea Turtles", (1991) Marine Turtle Newsletter 53, 32
227. G. Oza, "Gulf War Strikes Catastrophe for Turtles", (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 53, 4-5
228. R. Meakins, "Sea Turtles After the Gulf War", (2000) Marine Turtle Newsletter 88, 7-8
229. T. Thomas, "Turtles Rehabilitated After Persian Gulf Oil Spills", (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 55, 26-27
230. Editor, "Clean-Up At Karan Island", (1995) Marine Turtle Newsletter 68, 35
231. Editor, "Tampa Bay Oil Spill Threatens Turtles", (1994) Marine Turtle Newsletter 64, 29.
232. M. Tolba (ed.), The World Environment: 1972-1992, Two Decades of Challenge (Chapman Hall, London, UNEP, 1992), p. 120.
233. N. Mrosovksy, "Plastic Jellyfish", (1981) Marine Turtle Newsletter 17, 5-7
234. Editor, "Sea Turtles and Debris", (1985) Marine Turtle Newsletter 32, 8-9
235. W. Allen, "Loggerhead Dies After Ingesting Marine Debris", (1992) Marine Turtle Newsletter 58, 10
236. F. Bentivenga, "Removal of a Polyethylene Cord From a Loggerhead", (1995) Marine Turtle Newsletter 71, 5
237. Editor, "Loggerhead Turtles Consume Tar and Plastic", (1994) Marine Turtle Newsletter 64, 30
238. R. Chatto, "Sea Turtle Killed by Flotsam", (1995) Marine Turtle Newsletter 69, 17-18
239. M. Almengor, "Ingested Plastic Implicated in Death of Hawksbill", (1994) Marine Turtle Newsletter 64, 13.
240. See CMS Resolution, "Offshore Oil Pollution and Migratory Species" (UNEP/CMS/Res.7.11).
241. Mediterranean Action Plan, para. 2.
242. The Philippine-Malaysia Agreement.
243. RMTCP, note 1 above, s. 3(c).
244. 1973 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, (1973) 12 ILM 1319
245. Protocol of 1978 Relating to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, (1978) 17 ILM 1546.
246. The 1986 Protocol Concerning Co-Operation in Combating Marine Pollution Emergencies in the South Pacific Region, in Rummel Bulska, note 22 above, pp. 386-388
247. the Protocol for the Prevention of Pollution of the South Pacific Region By Dumping, in Rummel-Bulska, note 22 above, pp. 381-385.
248. Pacific Ocean Pollution Prevention Programme (Apia, SPREP, 2001).
249. WSSD, para. 52(g).
250. WSSD, para. 41.
251. N. Mrosovsky, "Tourists Pay for Turtle Watching in Malaysia", (1978) Marine Turtle Newsletter 9, 5
252. J. Cosijn, "Using Sea Turtles For Tourism Marketing", (1995) Marine Turtle Newsletter 71, 12-14.
253. WWF, "How Much for A Sea Turtle? The Economics of Sea Turtle Use and Conservation" (Gland, WWF, 2004).
254. M. Godfrey, "Developing Sea Turtle Eco-Tourism in French Guiana", (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 91, 1-4
255. J. Gutic, "Sea Turtle Eco-Tourism Brings Economic Benefit to Community", (1994) Marine Turtle Newsletter 64, 10-12
256. S. Bedding, "Sea Turtle Conservation Emerging in Papua New Guinea", (1989) Marine Turtle Newsletter 47, 13
257. C. Leh, "Marine Turtles in Sarawak", (1985) Marine Turtle Newsletter 35, 1-3
258. S. Aikanathan, "Malaysian Sea Turtles: What Future", (1996) Marine Turtle Newsletter 73, 23-24.
259. RMTCP, note 1 above, s. 3G.
260. See S. Gossling, "Global Environmental Consequences of
261. M. Honey, "Protecting Eden: Setting Green Standards for the Tourism Industry", (2003) 45 Environment 6, 9-21
262. M. Honey, "Treading Lightly: Eco-Tourism's Impact Upon the Environment", (1999) 41 Environment 5, 22-33.
263. B. Godley, "Turtles and Tourist Marketing", (1996) Marine Turtle Newsletter 74, 16-17
264. Editor, "Turtle Business Obscures Protection Effort in Bali", (1992) Marine Turtle Newsletter 57, 28-29
265. Editor, "Tourists and Turtles", (1991) Marine Turtle Newsletter 52, 25-26;
266. G. Balazc, "Sale of Turtle Products Promoted in Hawaii", (1977 Marine Turtle Newsletter 4, 4
267. Editor, "Indian Ocean Tourists Wiping Out Sea Turtles", (1977) Marine Turtle Newsletter 5, 4-5
268. S. Dattatri, "Beach Development in Sri Lanka", (1982) Marine Turtle Newsletter 22, 4-5
269. I. Cheng, "Tourism and the Green Turtle in Conflict on Taiwan", (1995) Marine Turtle Newsletter 68, 4-6 (note in particular the extreme case of Zakynthos)
270. D. Dimopoulos, "The National Marine Park of Zakynthos", (2001) Marine Turtle 93, 5-9
271. Editor, "Turtles Versus Tourists", (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 57, 31
272. D. Dimopoulos, "Zakynthos", (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 54, 21-23
273. Editor, "Problems For Turtle Protection on Zakynthos", (1991) Marine Turtle Newsletter 52, 6-7
274. D. Margaritoulis, "Successes and Failures in . . . Zakynthos", (1990) Marine Turtle Newsletter 49, 13-14
275. J. Sutherland, "Marine Turtles in Greece and Their Conservation", (1985) Marine Turtle Newsletter 32, 6-8.
276. B. Peter, "German Conservation Organisation Calls for Bali Boycott", (1990) Marine Turtle Newsletter 51, 28.
277. See CBD Decisions V/25, "Biological Diversity and Tourism", and VI/14, "Biological Diversity and Tourism". See also the Guidelines on Sustainable Tourism (UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/7/5, 20 September 2001).
278. Ocean Policy for the South Pacific. See 33rd Pacific Island Forum (Fiji, August 2002), PIFS (02) 8, Annex 2, p. 23.
279. SPREP, Indicator Handbook: A Guide to the Development and Use of Samoa's Sustainable Tourism Indicators (Apia, SPREP, 2003).
280. See the Philippines-Malaysia Agreement, Annex A, "Conservation and Research Programmes for the Turtle Islands Heritage Protected Area".
281. See also the Inter-American Convention, Annex II, "Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtle Habitats"
282. L. Venizelos, "Speedboats Kill Turtles", (1993) Marine Turtle Newsletter 63, 15
283. D. Dimitrios, "Speedboat Ban at Zakynthos", (1994) Marine Turtle Newsletter 67, 23-24
284. C. Limpus, "Lights and Hatchling Turtles", (1981) Marine Turtle Newsletter 19, 11
285. A. Huff, "Coastal Urban Lighting and Conservation of Sea Turtles", (1994) Marine Turtle Bulletin 66, 10-12
286. K. Leitch, "No To Beachcleaners", (1997) Marine Turtle Bulletin 77, 19-20.
287. C. Vietias, "Local Community Involvement in Conservation: Sea Turtles in Brazil", (1999) 33 Oryx 2, 127-131
288. E. Moreira, "Helping the People Help the Turtles", (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 91, 7-9
289. N. Frazer, "The Cost of Solutions, Who Pays?", (1985) Marine Turtle Newsletter 33, 15-16
290. G. Habhan, "Sea Turtle Workshop for the Indigenous Seri Tribe", (1999) Marine Turtle Newsletter 86, 14
291. G. Hill, "Villagers in Thailand Protect Turtle Eggs", (1991) Marine Turtle Newsletter 53, 8-9
292. I. Das, "Marine Turtle Conservation: The Tribal Connection", (1986) Marine Turtle Newsletter 36, 2-3
293. W. Nichols, "Community-Based Research and Its Application to Sea Turtle Conservation", (2000) Marine Turtle Newsletter 89, 4-7
294. J. Miller, "Listening to the Elders", (2000) Marine Turtle Newsletter 88, 1-2
295. IUCN, note 7 above, p. 14.
296. See J. Durbin, "Local People and Project Angonoka: Conservation of the Ploughshare Tortoise in Madagascar", (1996) 30 Oryx 2, 113-118
297. cf. F. Pearce, "Galapagos Tortoises Under Siege", (1995) New Scientist, 16 September issue.
298. IUCN, note 7 above, p. 12.
299. See A. Gillespie, "The Evolving Bi-Cultural Relationship With the Management of Cetaceans in New Zealand", (2001) 6 Asia-Pacific Journal of Environmental Law 13-47.
300. M. Nada, "Status of Sea Turtle Trade in Alexandria's Fish Market", (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 95, 5-8
301. S. Hewavisenthi, "Turtle Hatcheries in Sri Lanka: Boon or Bane?", (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 60, 19-22
302. S. Hewavisenthi, "Exploitation of Marine Turtles in Sri Lanka", (1990) Marine Turtle Newsletter 48, 14-19
303. H. Aridjis, "Mexico Proclaims Total Ban on Harvest of Turtles and Eggs", (1990) Marine Turtle Newsletter 50, 1-3
304. K. Sivakumar, "Sea Turtles in the South Bay of Great Nicobar Island", (2002) Marine Turtle Newsletter 96, 17-18
305. P. Kumar, "Sea Turtle Arribadas: Massacre or Conservation?", (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 56, 11-13
306. J. Vikaya, "Turtle Slaughter in India", (1982) Marine Turtle Newsletter 23, 2
307. P. Mohanty, "SOS From Sea Turtles From Orissa", (1983) Marine Turtle Newsletter 25, 2
308. V. Morales, "Legislation Protecting Marine Turtles in Peru", (1996) Marine Turtle Newsletter 75, 22-23
309. C. Aranda, "Marine Turtles in Peru", (1989) Marine Turtle Newsletter 45, 8-9
310. C. Barr, "Current Status of Trade and Legal Protection for Sea Turtles in Indonesia", (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 54, 4-7
311. P. Bunt, "Exploitation of Sea Turtles in Sumatra", (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 51, 19-20
312. M. Putrawidjaja, "Marine Turtles in Indonesia", (2000) Marine Turtle Newsletter 90, 8-10
313. R. Salm, "Trennanu Meets Competition", (1982) Marine Turtle Newsletter 20, 10-11
314. I. Suwelo, "Marine Turtle Problems in Bali Island", (1985) Marine Turtle Newsletter 32, 1-2
315. L. Venizelos, "Exploitation of Loggerhead and Green Turtles in Egypt", (2000) Marine Turtle Newsletter 87, 12-13
316. M. Hoyle, "Continuing Sea Turtle Exploitation in Antigua and Barbuda", (1994) Marine Turtle Newsletter 64, 21-22
317. J. Thorbjarnarson, "Sea Turtles in Myarmar: Past and Present", (2000) Marine Turtle Newsletter 88, 10-11
318. P. Opay, "Legal Action Taken to Stop The Hunting of Green Turtles in Costa Rica", (1998) Marine Turtle Newsletter 79, 12-16.
319. See P. Craig, "Sea Turtles: A Vanishing Resource in American Samoa", (1993) Marine Turtle Newsletter 61, 13-15.
320. S. Bedding, "Sea Turtle Conservation Emerging in Papua New Guinea", (1989) Marine Turtle Newsletter 47, 13.
321. S. Troeng, "Sea Turtle Conservation in Fiji", (1996) Marine Turtle Newsletter 73, 22-23.
322. In 1991 the Second Meeting of the RMTCP urged the authorities of New Caledonia to combat poaching in their territories and to strictly enforce statutory provisions relating to turtle conservation: Resolutions of the Second Meeting and Workshop of the Regional Turtle Conservation Programme (RMTCP), reprinted in (2001) Marine Turtle Newsletter 57, 12-15.