Thermohaline circulation, the achilles heel of our climate system: Will man-made CO2 upset the current balance?

Science

Volumn 278, Issue 5343, 1997, Pages 1582-1588

  Broecker, Wallace S ^a  

^a Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CARBON DIOXIDE;

ATMOSPHERE/OCEAN COUPLING; ATMOSPHERIC-OCEAN COUPLING; CARBON DIOXIDE; CLIMATE CHANGE; THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION;

AIR CONDITIONING; AIRFLOW; ARTICLE; ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION; CLIMATE; PRIORITY JOURNAL;

EID: 0030657055     PISSN: 00368075     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1126/science.278.5343.1582     Document Type: Article

References (107)

1. W. Dansgaard et al., Science 218, 1273 (1982); W. Dansgaard et al., Nature 364, 218 (1993); P. M. Grootes et al., ibid. 366, 552 (1993).
2. W. Dansgaard et al., Science 218, 1273 (1982); W. Dansgaard et al., Nature 364, 218 (1993); P. M. Grootes et al., ibid. 366, 552 (1993).
3. W. Dansgaard et al., Science 218, 1273 (1982); W. Dansgaard et al., Nature 364, 218 (1993); P. M. Grootes et al., ibid. 366, 552 (1993).
4. W. S. Broecker and G. H. Denton, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 53, 2465 (1989).
5. W. Dansgaard, J. W. C. White, S. J. Johnsen, Nature 339, 532 (1989).
6. K. C. Taylor et al., ibid. 361, 432 (1993).
7. W. Broecker, GSA Today 6, 1 (1996).
8. H. Stommel, Tellus 13, 224 (1961).
9. _, Deep-Sea Res. 5, 80 (1958); W. S. Broecker, Oceanography 4, 79 (1991); A. M. MacDonald and C. Wunsch, Nature 382, 436 (1996).
10. _, Deep-Sea Res. 5, 80 (1958); W. S. Broecker, Oceanography 4, 79 (1991); A. M. MacDonald and C. Wunsch, Nature 382, 436 (1996).
11. _, Deep-Sea Res. 5, 80 (1958); W. S. Broecker, Oceanography 4, 79 (1991); A. M. MacDonald and C. Wunsch, Nature 382, 436 (1996).
12. 21 cal/year. This is equal to roughly 25% of the energy supplied annually to the troposphere over the Atlantic north of the Straits of Gibraltar.
13. W. S. Broecker et al., J. Geophys. Res., in press.
14. E. C. Carmack, NATO ASIB 146, 641 (1986).
15. T. D. Foster and J. H. Middleton, Deep-Sea Res. 27, 367 (1980); A. Foldvik, T. Gammelsr'bfd, T. T'bfrrensen, in Oceanology of the Antarctic Continental Shelf, Antarctic Research Series, S. S. Jacobs, Ed. (American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, 1985), pp. 5-20; E. Fahrbach et al., J. Mar. Res. 53, 515 (1995).
16. T. D. Foster and J. H. Middleton, Deep-Sea Res. 27, 367 (1980); A. Foldvik, T. Gammelsr'bfd, T. T'bfrrensen, in Oceanology of the Antarctic Continental Shelf, Antarctic Research Series, S. S. Jacobs, Ed. (American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, 1985), pp. 5-20; E. Fahrbach et al., J. Mar. Res. 53, 515 (1995).
17. T. D. Foster and J. H. Middleton, Deep-Sea Res. 27, 367 (1980); A. Foldvik, T. Gammelsr'bfd, T. T'bfrrensen, in Oceanology of the Antarctic Continental Shelf, Antarctic Research Series, S. S. Jacobs, Ed. (American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, 1985), pp. 5-20; E. Fahrbach et al., J. Mar. Res. 53, 515 (1995).
18. A number of estimates of net flux of water vapor out of the Atlantic Ocean and its continental drainage basin have been made. Baumgartner and Reichel's global water balance yielded 0.45 Sv. Using Oort's [A. H. Oort, NOAA Prof. Pap. 14, (1983)] humidity and wind data, Zaucker and Broecker [F. Zaucker and W. S. Broecker, J. Geophys. Res. 97, 2765 (1992)] obtained 0.32 Sv. Estimates obtained using GCM models are generally lower, for example, the Miller and Russell [J. R. Miller and G. L. Russell, Paleoceanography 5, 397 (1990)] GISS 8° × 10° model obtain 0.12 Sv. Based on this wide range of estimates, I conclude that the flux likely lies in the range 0.25 ± 0.15 Sv. In order to balance this loss, the difference in salinity between the 15 Sv of North Atlantic deep water carried around the southern tip of Africa by the Conveyor's lower limb and that of the aggregate return flow must be 0.57 ± 0.34 g/liter.
19. A number of estimates of net flux of water vapor out of the Atlantic Ocean and its continental drainage basin have been made. Baumgartner and Reichel's global water balance yielded 0.45 Sv. Using Oort's [A. H. Oort, NOAA Prof. Pap. 14, (1983)] humidity and wind data, Zaucker and Broecker [F. Zaucker and W. S. Broecker, J. Geophys. Res. 97, 2765 (1992)] obtained 0.32 Sv. Estimates obtained using GCM models are generally lower, for example, the Miller and Russell [J. R. Miller and G. L. Russell, Paleoceanography 5, 397 (1990)] GISS 8° × 10° model obtain 0.12 Sv. Based on this wide range of estimates, I conclude that the flux likely lies in the range 0.25 ± 0.15 Sv. In order to balance this loss, the difference in salinity between the 15 Sv of North Atlantic deep water carried around the southern tip of Africa by the Conveyor's lower limb and that of the aggregate return flow must be 0.57 ± 0.34 g/liter.
20. A number of estimates of net flux of water vapor out of the Atlantic Ocean and its continental drainage basin have been made. Baumgartner and Reichel's global water balance yielded 0.45 Sv. Using Oort's [A. H. Oort, NOAA Prof. Pap. 14, (1983)] humidity and wind data, Zaucker and Broecker [F. Zaucker and W. S. Broecker, J. Geophys. Res. 97, 2765 (1992)] obtained 0.32 Sv. Estimates obtained using GCM models are generally lower, for example, the Miller and Russell [J. R. Miller and G. L. Russell, Paleoceanography 5, 397 (1990)] GISS 8° × 10° model obtain 0.12 Sv. Based on this wide range of estimates, I conclude that the flux likely lies in the range 0.25 ± 0.15 Sv. In order to balance this loss, the difference in salinity between the 15 Sv of North Atlantic deep water carried around the southern tip of Africa by the Conveyor's lower limb and that of the aggregate return flow must be 0.57 ± 0.34 g/liter.
21. 3/s. The transport by today's Conveyor is about 15 Sv compared to that of all the world's rivers of about 1 Sv.
22. W. S. Broecker, Oceanography 4, 79 (1991).
23. T. Takahashi, W. S. Broecker, S. Langer, J. Geophys. Res. 90, 6907 (1985); L. A. Anderson and J. L. Sarmiento, Global Biogeochem. Cycles 8, 65 (1994).
24. T. Takahashi, W. S. Broecker, S. Langer, J. Geophys. Res. 90, 6907 (1985); L. A. Anderson and J. L. Sarmiento, Global Biogeochem. Cycles 8, 65 (1994).
25. J. Marotzke and J. Willebrand, J. Phys. Ocean. 21, 1372 (1991).
26. E. Tziperman, Nature 386, 593 (1997).
27. A. T. Roach et al., J. Geophys. Res. 100, 18,443 (1995).
28. A. Baumgartner and E. Reichel, in The World Water Balance, R. Oldenbourg (Verlag, München, Germany, 1975).
29. S. Manabe and R. J. Stouffer, J. Clim. 1, 841 (1988); E. Maier-Reimer and U. Mikolajewicz, Proc. Joint Oceanogr. Assem. 87, (1989); T. F. Stocker and D. G. Wright, Nature 351, 729 (1991); A. J. Weaver et al., J. Phys. Oceanogr. 23, 1470 (1993); S. Rahmstorf, Nature 372, 82 (1994); ibid. 378, 145 (1995); S. Manabe and R. J. Stouffer, Paleoceanography 12, 321 (1997).
30. S. Manabe and R. J. Stouffer, J. Clim. 1, 841 (1988); E. Maier-Reimer and U. Mikolajewicz, Proc. Joint Oceanogr. Assem. 87, (1989); T. F. Stocker and D. G. Wright, Nature 351, 729 (1991); A. J. Weaver et al., J. Phys. Oceanogr. 23, 1470 (1993); S. Rahmstorf, Nature 372, 82 (1994); ibid. 378, 145 (1995); S. Manabe and R. J. Stouffer, Paleoceanography 12, 321 (1997).
31. S. Manabe and R. J. Stouffer, J. Clim. 1, 841 (1988); E. Maier-Reimer and U. Mikolajewicz, Proc. Joint Oceanogr. Assem. 87, (1989); T. F. Stocker and D. G. Wright, Nature 351, 729 (1991); A. J. Weaver et al., J. Phys. Oceanogr. 23, 1470 (1993); S. Rahmstorf, Nature 372, 82 (1994); ibid. 378, 145 (1995); S. Manabe and R. J. Stouffer, Paleoceanography 12, 321 (1997).
32. S. Manabe and R. J. Stouffer, J. Clim. 1, 841 (1988); E. Maier-Reimer and U. Mikolajewicz, Proc. Joint Oceanogr. Assem. 87, (1989); T. F. Stocker and D. G. Wright, Nature 351, 729 (1991); A. J. Weaver et al., J. Phys. Oceanogr. 23, 1470 (1993); S. Rahmstorf, Nature 372, 82 (1994); ibid. 378, 145 (1995); S. Manabe and R. J. Stouffer, Paleoceanography 12, 321 (1997).
33. S. Manabe and R. J. Stouffer, J. Clim. 1, 841 (1988); E. Maier-Reimer and U. Mikolajewicz, Proc. Joint Oceanogr. Assem. 87, (1989); T. F. Stocker and D. G. Wright, Nature 351, 729 (1991); A. J. Weaver et al., J. Phys. Oceanogr. 23, 1470 (1993); S. Rahmstorf, Nature 372, 82 (1994); ibid. 378, 145 (1995); S. Manabe and R. J. Stouffer, Paleoceanography 12, 321 (1997).
34. S. Manabe and R. J. Stouffer, J. Clim. 1, 841 (1988); E. Maier-Reimer and U. Mikolajewicz, Proc. Joint Oceanogr. Assem. 87, (1989); T. F. Stocker and D. G. Wright, Nature 351, 729 (1991); A. J. Weaver et al., J. Phys. Oceanogr. 23, 1470 (1993); S. Rahmstorf, Nature 372, 82 (1994); ibid. 378, 145 (1995); S. Manabe and R. J. Stouffer, Paleoceanography 12, 321 (1997).
35. S. Manabe and R. J. Stouffer, J. Clim. 1, 841 (1988); E. Maier-Reimer and U. Mikolajewicz, Proc. Joint Oceanogr. Assem. 87, (1989); T. F. Stocker and D. G. Wright, Nature 351, 729 (1991); A. J. Weaver et al., J. Phys. Oceanogr. 23, 1470 (1993); S. Rahmstorf, Nature 372, 82 (1994); ibid. 378, 145 (1995); S. Manabe and R. J. Stouffer, Paleoceanography 12, 321 (1997).
36. R. B. Alley et al., Nature 362, 527 (1993).
37. G. C. Bond and R. Lotti, Science 267, 1005 (1995).
38. P. E. Biscaye et al., in J. Geophys. Res., in press.
39. J. Chappellaz et al., Nature 366, 443 (1993); J. P. Severinghaus et al., ibid., in press.
40. J. Chappellaz et al., Nature 366, 443 (1993); J. P. Severinghaus et al., ibid., in press.
41. G. H. Denton and C. H. Hendy, Science 264, 1434 (1994); T. V. Lowell et al., ibid. 269, 1541 (1995).
42. G. H. Denton and C. H. Hendy, Science 264, 1434 (1994); T. V. Lowell et al., ibid. 269, 1541 (1995).
43. R. B. Alley et al., Geology 25, 483 (1997).
44. D. Rind and D. Peteet, Quat. Res. 24, 1 (1985).
45. L. G. Thompson et al., Science 269, 46 (1995).
46. W. S. Broecker, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, in press.
47. T. P. Guilderson, R. G. Fairbanks, J. L. Rubenstone, Science 263, 663 (1994); M. Stute et al., ibid. 269, 379 (1995); F. Rostek et al., Nature 364, 319 (1993).
48. T. P. Guilderson, R. G. Fairbanks, J. L. Rubenstone, Science 263, 663 (1994); M. Stute et al., ibid. 269, 379 (1995); F. Rostek et al., Nature 364, 319 (1993).
49. T. P. Guilderson, R. G. Fairbanks, J. L. Rubenstone, Science 263, 663 (1994); M. Stute et al., ibid. 269, 379 (1995); F. Rostek et al., Nature 364, 319 (1993).
50. M. Briat, A. Royer, J. R. Petit, C. Lorius, Ann. Glaciol. 3, 27 (1982); A. Gaudichet, J. R. Petit, R. Lefevre, C. Lorius, Tellus 38B, 250 (1986); M. De Angelis, N. I. Barkov, V. N. Petrov, Nature 325, 318 (1987); J. R. Petit et al., ibid. 343, 56 (1990); K. C. Taylor et al., ibid. 366, 549 (1993); M. Ram and R. I. Gayley, Geophys. Res. Lett. 21, 437 (1994).
51. M. Briat, A. Royer, J. R. Petit, C. Lorius, Ann. Glaciol. 3, 27 (1982); A. Gaudichet, J. R. Petit, R. Lefevre, C. Lorius, Tellus 38B, 250 (1986); M. De Angelis, N. I. Barkov, V. N. Petrov, Nature 325, 318 (1987); J. R. Petit et al., ibid. 343, 56 (1990); K. C. Taylor et al., ibid. 366, 549 (1993); M. Ram and R. I. Gayley, Geophys. Res. Lett. 21, 437 (1994).
52. M. Briat, A. Royer, J. R. Petit, C. Lorius, Ann. Glaciol. 3, 27 (1982); A. Gaudichet, J. R. Petit, R. Lefevre, C. Lorius, Tellus 38B, 250 (1986); M. De Angelis, N. I. Barkov, V. N. Petrov, Nature 325, 318 (1987); J. R. Petit et al., ibid. 343, 56 (1990); K. C. Taylor et al., ibid. 366, 549 (1993); M. Ram and R. I. Gayley, Geophys. Res. Lett. 21, 437 (1994).
53. M. Briat, A. Royer, J. R. Petit, C. Lorius, Ann. Glaciol. 3, 27 (1982); A. Gaudichet, J. R. Petit, R. Lefevre, C. Lorius, Tellus 38B, 250 (1986); M. De Angelis, N. I. Barkov, V. N. Petrov, Nature 325, 318 (1987); J. R. Petit et al., ibid. 343, 56 (1990); K. C. Taylor et al., ibid. 366, 549 (1993); M. Ram and R. I. Gayley, Geophys. Res. Lett. 21, 437 (1994).
54. M. Briat, A. Royer, J. R. Petit, C. Lorius, Ann. Glaciol. 3, 27 (1982); A. Gaudichet, J. R. Petit, R. Lefevre, C. Lorius, Tellus 38B, 250 (1986); M. De Angelis, N. I. Barkov, V. N. Petrov, Nature 325, 318 (1987); J. R. Petit et al., ibid. 343, 56 (1990); K. C. Taylor et al., ibid. 366, 549 (1993); M. Ram and R. I. Gayley, Geophys. Res. Lett. 21, 437 (1994).
55. M. Briat, A. Royer, J. R. Petit, C. Lorius, Ann. Glaciol. 3, 27 (1982); A. Gaudichet, J. R. Petit, R. Lefevre, C. Lorius, Tellus 38B, 250 (1986); M. De Angelis, N. I. Barkov, V. N. Petrov, Nature 325, 318 (1987); J. R. Petit et al., ibid. 343, 56 (1990); K. C. Taylor et al., ibid. 366, 549 (1993); M. Ram and R. I. Gayley, Geophys. Res. Lett. 21, 437 (1994).
56. S. J. Lehman and L. D. Keigwin, Nature 356, 757 (1992).
57. K. A. Hughen et al., ibid. 380, 51 (1996).
58. L. D. Keigwin and G. A. Jones, Paleoceanography 5, 1009 (1990).
59. K. Chinzel et al., Mar. Micropaleontol. 11, 273 (1987); N. Kallel et al., Oceanol. Acta 12, 369 (1988); B. K. Linsley and R. C. Thunell, Paleoceanography 5, 1025 (1990); H. R. Kudrass et al., Nature 349, 406 (1991).
60. K. Chinzel et al., Mar. Micropaleontol. 11, 273 (1987); N. Kallel et al., Oceanol. Acta 12, 369 (1988); B. K. Linsley and R. C. Thunell, Paleoceanography 5, 1025 (1990); H. R. Kudrass et al., Nature 349, 406 (1991).
61. K. Chinzel et al., Mar. Micropaleontol. 11, 273 (1987); N. Kallel et al., Oceanol. Acta 12, 369 (1988); B. K. Linsley and R. C. Thunell, Paleoceanography 5, 1025 (1990); H. R. Kudrass et al., Nature 349, 406 (1991).
62. K. Chinzel et al., Mar. Micropaleontol. 11, 273 (1987); N. Kallel et al., Oceanol. Acta 12, 369 (1988); B. K. Linsley and R. C. Thunell, Paleoceanography 5, 1025 (1990); H. R. Kudrass et al., Nature 349, 406 (1991).
63. R. J. Behl and J. P. Kennett, Nature 379, 243 (1996).
64. J. P. Kennett, I. Hendy, K. Cannariato, in ODP Greatest Hits brochure (Joint Oceanographic Institutions, Washington, DC, 1997), p. 13.
65. T. Sowers and M. Bender, Science 269, 210 (1995).
66. K. A. Hughen et al., Nature, in press.
67. W. Broecker, Paleoceanography, in press; T. Blunier et al., Geophys. Res. Lett., in press.
68. W. Broecker, Paleoceanography, in press; T. Blunier et al., Geophys. Res. Lett., in press.
69. J. L. Wilson, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 78, 805 (1967); P. H. Heckel, Geology 14, 330 (1986); D. R. Boardman II and P. H. Heckel, ibid. 17, 802 (1989).
70. J. L. Wilson, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 78, 805 (1967); P. H. Heckel, Geology 14, 330 (1986); D. R. Boardman II and P. H. Heckel, ibid. 17, 802 (1989).
71. J. L. Wilson, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 78, 805 (1967); P. H. Heckel, Geology 14, 330 (1986); D. R. Boardman II and P. H. Heckel, ibid. 17, 802 (1989).
72. T. D. Herbert and A. G. Fischer, Nature 321, 739 (1986); L. Hardie and E. Shinn, Color. School Mines Quart. 81, 1 (1986); R. K. Goldhammer, P. A. Dunn, L. A. Hardie, Am. J. Sci. 287, 853 (1987); D. Jacobs and D. Sahagian, Nature 361, 710 (1993); B. Wilkinson, N. W. Diedrich, C. N. Drummond, J. Sed. Res. 66, 1065 (1996).
73. T. D. Herbert and A. G. Fischer, Nature 321, 739 (1986); L. Hardie and E. Shinn, Color. School Mines Quart. 81, 1 (1986); R. K. Goldhammer, P. A. Dunn, L. A. Hardie, Am. J. Sci. 287, 853 (1987); D. Jacobs and D. Sahagian, Nature 361, 710 (1993); B. Wilkinson, N. W. Diedrich, C. N. Drummond, J. Sed. Res. 66, 1065 (1996).
74. T. D. Herbert and A. G. Fischer, Nature 321, 739 (1986); L. Hardie and E. Shinn, Color. School Mines Quart. 81, 1 (1986); R. K. Goldhammer, P. A. Dunn, L. A. Hardie, Am. J. Sci. 287, 853 (1987); D. Jacobs and D. Sahagian, Nature 361, 710 (1993); B. Wilkinson, N. W. Diedrich, C. N. Drummond, J. Sed. Res. 66, 1065 (1996).
75. T. D. Herbert and A. G. Fischer, Nature 321, 739 (1986); L. Hardie and E. Shinn, Color. School Mines Quart. 81, 1 (1986); R. K. Goldhammer, P. A. Dunn, L. A. Hardie, Am. J. Sci. 287, 853 (1987); D. Jacobs and D. Sahagian, Nature 361, 710 (1993); B. Wilkinson, N. W. Diedrich, C. N. Drummond, J. Sed. Res. 66, 1065 (1996).
76. T. D. Herbert and A. G. Fischer, Nature 321, 739 (1986); L. Hardie and E. Shinn, Color. School Mines Quart. 81, 1 (1986); R. K. Goldhammer, P. A. Dunn, L. A. Hardie, Am. J. Sci. 287, 853 (1987); D. Jacobs and D. Sahagian, Nature 361, 710 (1993); B. Wilkinson, N. W. Diedrich, C. N. Drummond, J. Sed. Res. 66, 1065 (1996).
77. D. V. Kent, P. E. Olsen, W. K. Witte, J. Geophys. Res. 100, 14,965 (1995); P. E. Olsen and D. V. Kent, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 122, 1 (1996); P. Olsen, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 25, 337 (1997).
78. D. V. Kent, P. E. Olsen, W. K. Witte, J. Geophys. Res. 100, 14,965 (1995); P. E. Olsen and D. V. Kent, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 122, 1 (1996); P. Olsen, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 25, 337 (1997).
79. D. V. Kent, P. E. Olsen, W. K. Witte, J. Geophys. Res. 100, 14,965 (1995); P. E. Olsen and D. V. Kent, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 122, 1 (1996); P. Olsen, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 25, 337 (1997).
80. M. E. Raymo et al., Paleoceanography 4, 413 (1989).
81. C. G. Langereis and F. J. Hilgen, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 104, 211 (1991); F. J. Hilgen et al., EOS 78, 285 (1997).
82. C. G. Langereis and F. J. Hilgen, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 104, 211 (1991); F. J. Hilgen et al., EOS 78, 285 (1997).
83. R. Y. Anderson, J. Geophys. Res. 87, 7285 (1982).
84. S. Manabe and R. J. Stouffer, Nature 364, 215 (1993).
85. T. F. Stocker and A. Schmittner, ibid. 388, 862 (1997).
86. T. D. Foster, A. Foldvik, J. H. Middleton, Deep-Sea Res. 34, 1771 (1987); A. Foldvik and T. Gammelsr'bfd, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 67, 3 (1988); A. L. Gordon, B. A. Huber, H. H. Hellmer, A. Ffield, Science 262, 95 (1993); E. Fahrback, J. Mar. Res. 53, 515 (1995).
87. T. D. Foster, A. Foldvik, J. H. Middleton, Deep-Sea Res. 34, 1771 (1987); A. Foldvik and T. Gammelsr'bfd, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 67, 3 (1988); A. L. Gordon, B. A. Huber, H. H. Hellmer, A. Ffield, Science 262, 95 (1993); E. Fahrback, J. Mar. Res. 53, 515 (1995).
88. T. D. Foster, A. Foldvik, J. H. Middleton, Deep-Sea Res. 34, 1771 (1987); A. Foldvik and T. Gammelsr'bfd, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 67, 3 (1988); A. L. Gordon, B. A. Huber, H. H. Hellmer, A. Ffield, Science 262, 95 (1993); E. Fahrback, J. Mar. Res. 53, 515 (1995).
89. T. D. Foster, A. Foldvik, J. H. Middleton, Deep-Sea Res. 34, 1771 (1987); A. Foldvik and T. Gammelsr'bfd, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 67, 3 (1988); A. L. Gordon, B. A. Huber, H. H. Hellmer, A. Ffield, Science 262, 95 (1993); E. Fahrback, J. Mar. Res. 53, 515 (1995).
90. J. F. McManus et al., Nature 371, 326 (1994).
91. G. M. Woillard, Quat. Res. 9, 1 (1978).
92. R. L. Michel, J. Geophy. Res. 83, 6192 (1978); R. F. Weiss, H. G. Östlund, H. Craig, Deep-Sea Res., 26, 1093 (1979); R. Bayer and P. Schlosser, Mar. Chem. 35, 123 (1991); P. Schlosser, J. L. Bullister, R. Bayer, ibid., p. 97.
93. R. L. Michel, J. Geophy. Res. 83, 6192 (1978); R. F. Weiss, H. G. Östlund, H. Craig, Deep-Sea Res., 26, 1093 (1979); R. Bayer and P. Schlosser, Mar. Chem. 35, 123 (1991); P. Schlosser, J. L. Bullister, R. Bayer, ibid., p. 97.
94. R. L. Michel, J. Geophy. Res. 83, 6192 (1978); R. F. Weiss, H. G. Östlund, H. Craig, Deep-Sea Res., 26, 1093 (1979); R. Bayer and P. Schlosser, Mar. Chem. 35, 123 (1991); P. Schlosser, J. L. Bullister, R. Bayer, ibid., p. 97.
95. R. L. Michel, J. Geophy. Res. 83, 6192 (1978); R. F. Weiss, H. G. Östlund, H. Craig, Deep-Sea Res., 26, 1093 (1979); R. Bayer and P. Schlosser, Mar. Chem. 35, 123 (1991); P. Schlosser, J. L. Bullister, R. Bayer, ibid., p. 97.
96. P. Schlosser, G. Bönisch, M. Rein, P. Bayer, Science 251, 1054 (1991); G. Bönisch et al., J. Geophys. Res. 102, 18,553 (1997).
97. P. Schlosser, G. Bönisch, M. Rein, P. Bayer, Science 251, 1054 (1991); G. Bönisch et al., J. Geophys. Res. 102, 18,553 (1997).
98. W. K. de la Mare, Nature 389, 57 (1997).
99. H. J. Herzog, ed., "Carbon Dioxide Removal," Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Carbon Dioxide Removal," Cambridge, MA, 9 to 11 September 1996, Energy Conversion Management 38 (suppl. 689) (1997); B. Hileman, Chem. Eng. News 34 (1997); A. K. N. Reddy, R. H. Williams, T. B. Johansson, Energy After Rio (UNDP, New York, 1997); R. H. Williams, Princeton University, Center for Energy and Environmental Studies Report No. 295, January 1996; in Eco-Restructuring, R. U. Ayres et al., Eds. (United Nations Univ. Press, Tokyo, in press).
100. H. J. Herzog, ed., "Carbon Dioxide Removal," Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Carbon Dioxide Removal," Cambridge, MA, 9 to 11 September 1996, Energy Conversion Management 38 (suppl. 689) (1997); B. Hileman, Chem. Eng. News 34 (1997); A. K. N. Reddy, R. H. Williams, T. B. Johansson, Energy After Rio (UNDP, New York, 1997); R. H. Williams, Princeton University, Center for Energy and Environmental Studies Report No. 295, January 1996; in Eco-Restructuring, R. U. Ayres et al., Eds. (United Nations Univ. Press, Tokyo, in press).
101. H. J. Herzog, ed., "Carbon Dioxide Removal," Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Carbon Dioxide Removal," Cambridge, MA, 9 to 11 September 1996, Energy Conversion Management 38 (suppl. 689) (1997); B. Hileman, Chem. Eng. News 34 (1997); A. K. N. Reddy, R. H. Williams, T. B. Johansson, Energy After Rio (UNDP, New York, 1997); R. H. Williams, Princeton University, Center for Energy and Environmental Studies Report No. 295, January 1996; in Eco-Restructuring, R. U. Ayres et al., Eds. (United Nations Univ. Press, Tokyo, in press).
102. H. J. Herzog, ed., "Carbon Dioxide Removal," Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Carbon Dioxide Removal," Cambridge, MA, 9 to 11 September 1996, Energy Conversion Management 38 (suppl. 689) (1997); B. Hileman, Chem. Eng. News 34 (1997); A. K. N. Reddy, R. H. Williams, T. B. Johansson, Energy After Rio (UNDP, New York, 1997); R. H. Williams, Princeton University, Center for Energy and Environmental Studies Report No. 295, January 1996; in Eco-Restructuring, R. U. Ayres et al., Eds. (United Nations Univ. Press, Tokyo, in press).
103. H. J. Herzog, ed., "Carbon Dioxide Removal," Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Carbon Dioxide Removal," Cambridge, MA, 9 to 11 September 1996, Energy Conversion Management 38 (suppl. 689) (1997); B. Hileman, Chem. Eng. News 34 (1997); A. K. N. Reddy, R. H. Williams, T. B. Johansson, Energy After Rio (UNDP, New York, 1997); R. H. Williams, Princeton University, Center for Energy and Environmental Studies Report No. 295, January 1996; in Eco-Restructuring, R. U. Ayres et al., Eds. (United Nations Univ. Press, Tokyo, in press).
104. D. A. Meese et al., Science 266, 1680 (1994); R. B. Alley et al., Nature 362, 527 (1993); D. A. Meese et al., J. Geophys. Res., in press.
105. D. A. Meese et al., Science 266, 1680 (1994); R. B. Alley et al., Nature 362, 527 (1993); D. A. Meese et al., J. Geophys. Res., in press.
106. D. A. Meese et al., Science 266, 1680 (1994); R. B. Alley et al., Nature 362, 527 (1993); D. A. Meese et al., J. Geophys. Res., in press.
107. My recent ideas about sedimentary cycles in the distant past have been tempered by discussions with A. Fischer, B. Berggren, N. Christie-Blick, D. Kent, P. Olsen, P. Lohmann, L. Hinnov, P. deMenocal, F. Read, J. Banner, and B. Cecil. It was a push by T. Edgar that launched me down this track. Over the years, discussions with M. Bender, G. Denton, J. Jouzel, G. Bond, R. Alley, J. Severinghaus, and J. Imbrie have molded my thinking about the events of the Late Quaternary. In this case, it was ideas about multiple climate states expressed to me by H. Oeschger in 1984 that sparked my thinking. My research on the oceans has benefited from the wisdom of T. Stocker, T. Takahashi, S. Rahmstorf, R. Toggweiler, E. Maier-Reimer, S. Manabe, J. Marotzke, J. McWilliams, U. Mikolajewicz, A. Gordon, and P. Schlosser. It was the late H. Stommel who inspired me to a new level of thinking and action (that is, the GEOSECS program). S. Peacock has worked with me on the problem of deep water formation in the Southern Ocean. J. Totton and P. Catanzaro transformed my hand scribbles into readable manuscript.