Essentially contested concepts: Debates and applications

Journal of Political Ideologies

Volumn 11, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 211-246

  Collier, David ^a   Hidalgo, Fernando Daniel ^a   Maciuceanu, Andra Olivia ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK; DEMOCRACY; DISPUTE RESOLUTION; POLITICAL IDEOLOGY; POLITICAL THEORY;

EID: 33750826106     PISSN: 13569317     EISSN: 14699613     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13569310600923782     Document Type: Article

References (207)

1. Robert Adcock, Ruth Berins Collier, Robert Kagan, Sebastián Mazzuca, and the editor of this journal made comments helpful in the creation of this article. Beth Neitzel provided invaluable research assistance, and she as well as Nada Abshir skillfully helped with the final preparation of the manuscript. This article benefited from the prior analysis presented in Sara Poster, 'Essentially Contested Concepts: Origins, Insights, and Implications', Senior Honors Thesis, Department of Political Science, University of California, Berkeley, 2003.
2. Four examples of studies that explore the consequences of inconsistent meanings for the crucial task of making inferences about causation are Steven Levitsky, 'Institutionalization and peronism: The concept, the case, and the case for unpacking the concept', Party Politics, 4, 1998, pp. 77-92
3. Marcus J. Kurtz, 'Understanding peasant revolution: From concept to theory and case', Theory and Society, 29, 2000, pp. 93-124
4. and Giovanni Capoccia, 'Anti-system parties', Journal of Theoretical Politics, 14, 2002, pp. 9-35
5. James Johnson, 'Conceptual problems as obstacles to progress in political science', Journal of Theoretical Politics, 15, 2003, pp. 87-115.
6. For a surprisingly forceful rejection of a focus on complex concepts, see Gary King, Robert Keohane and Sidney Verba, Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994).
7. Exemplary efforts to establish concept analysis as a central concern of methodology in empirical social science include Giovanni Sartori, Social Science Concepts: A Systematic Analysis (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1984)
8. John Gerring, Social Science Methodology: A Criterial Framework (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), Chapters 1-4
9. Gary Goertz, Social Science Concepts: A User's Guide (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006).
10. Throughout the present article, the terms 'normative' and 'appraisive' refer to arguments that explicitly or implicitly reflect judgments about what 'ought to be' or 'ought not to be'. At the risk evoking a complex distinction, we may say that these judgments can directly concern the phenomena entailed in the concept, and/or they may concern the consequences of these phenomena. For example, democracy may be valued for itself, or because it has valued consequences.
11. Whereas one perspective on concepts views choices about term and meaning as separate, another perspective would suggest that elements of meaning are embedded in the term. The latter could occur in situations where the term is a powerful political slogan in its own right. Evidence that the meaning can in fact be separated from the term is Dahl's introduction of 'polyarchy' to capture an important aspect of 'democracy'. Clearly, part of Dahl's meaning of democracy carries over to polyarchy, so in this instance, the meaning does not depend on the term. See R. Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1971), Chapter 1.
12. W. B.Gallie, 'Essentially contested concepts', Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 56, 1956, pp. 167-198.
13. W. B. Gallie, 'Art as an essentially contested concept', The Philosophical Quarterly, 6, 1956, pp. 97-114.
14. W. B. Gallie, Philosophy and the Historical Understanding, 2nd edition (New York: Schocken Books, 1968).
15. To cite a prosaic yet useful demonstration of Gallie's wider resonance, entering the phrase 'essentially contested concept' in the internet search engine Google produces over 12 500 hits (viewed June 2006). As is typically the case with references found on Google, most of these entries were published since the year 2000, and virtually all of them appeared since the mid-1990s.
16. Among numerous statements about the role of normative concerns in the social sciences, one that is especially salient here is Max Weber's admonition that scholars should frankly face 'inconvenient facts', i.e. facts that are 'inconvenient' for their political viewpoint. Weber states that becoming accustomed to recognizing the existence of such facts constitutes a 'moral achievement'. For present purposes it is an achievement that is especially relevant to Gallie's Criteria Nos. V and VII. See Max Weber, 'Science as a Vocation', in H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (Eds), From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, 2nd edition (New York: Oxford University Press, 1958 [Originally published in 1919]), p. 147.
17. Gallie, op cit, Ref. 6, p. 196.
18. Gallie, ibid, p. 168.
19. Gallie, ibid, p. 194.
20. Gallie, ibid, p. 196.
21. Newton Garver, 'Violence and social order' in Ota Weinberger, Peter Koller and Alfred Schramm (Eds), Philosophy of Law, Politics, and Society. Proceedings of the 12th International Wittgenstein Symposium (Vienna: Holder-Pichler-Tempsky, 1987), pp. 218-223.
22. John N. Gray, 'On the contestability of social and political concepts', Political Theory, 5, 1977, pp. 331-349, p. 343.
23. Gray, ibid, p. 339.
24. Gray, ibid, p. 343.
25. John N. Gray, 'On liberty, liberalism, and essential contestability', British Journal of Political Science, 8, 1978, pp. 385-402, p. 392.
26. Barry Clarke, 'Eccentrically contested concepts', British Journal of Political Science, 9, 1979, pp. 122-126, pp. 125-126.
27. Gallie, op cit, Ref. 6, p. 169.
28. Gallie, 'Art as an essentially contested concept', Ref. 7, p. 113-114.
29. Michael Freeden follows a similar usage to Gallie. See Michael Freeden, 'Assembling: From concepts to ideologies', Chapter 2 in Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), p. 60.
30. Other uses of the term contestable are found in Ian Shapiro, 'Gross concepts in political argument', Political Theory, 17, 1989, pp. 51-76, pp. 67-68
31. Norman S. Care, 'On fixing social concepts', Ethics, 84, 1973, pp. 10-21
32. Alasdair MacIntyre, 'The essential contestability of some social concepts', Ethics 84, 1973, pp. 1-9, p. 9
33. Gray, op cit, Ref. 16, p. 339
34. Michael Freeden, 'Editorial: Essential contestability and effective contestability', Journal of Political Ideologies, 9, 2004, pp. 3-11, pp. 4-5.
35. Gallie, op cit, Ref. 6, p. 180.
36. Jeremy Waldron, 'Is the rule of law an essentially contested concept (in Florida)?, Law and Philosophy, 21, 2002, pp. 137-164, p. 148.
37. Gallie, Philosophy and the Historical Understanding, op cit, Ref. 8, p. 190.
38. Gallie, op cit, Ref. 6, p. 168.
39. Gallie, ibid, pp. 170, 180, 188.
40. See Clarke, op cit, Ref. 20, pp. 125-126
41. and David A. Baldwin, 'The concept of security', Review of International Studies, 23, 1997, pp. 5-26, pp. 10-11.
42. Gallie, op cit, Ref. 6, pp. 168 and 170, respectively.
43. Gallie, ibid, p. 183; see also p. 169.
44. Waldron, op cit, Ref. 25, pp. 148-149.
45. Robert Grafstein, 'A realist foundation for essentially contested political concepts', The Western Political Quarterly, 41, 1988, pp. 9-28, pp. 19, 25
46. Michael Freeden, 'Political concepts and ideological morphology', The Journal of Political Philosophy, 2, 1994, pp. 140-164, p. 141
47. and Freeden, 'Editorial', Ref. 23, p. 6.
48. Gallie, op cit, Ref. 6, p. 171.
49. Gallie, 'Art as an essentially contested concept', Ref. 7, p. 109. In this related article, which treats the idea of essential contestedness far more briefly, Gallie discusses further the idea of appraisiveness (ibid, p. 108) and - without necessarily using the same terms - the criteria of internal complexity and diverse describability (ibid, pp. 100, 110-111) and of openness (ibid, p. 114).
50. Gallie, op cit, Ref. 6, p. 184. Italics in original.
51. William E. Connolly, 'Essentially contested concepts in politics', Chapter 1 in Terms of Political Discourse, 2nd edition (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983 [Originally published in 1974]), p. 22
52. and Freeden, 'Assembling', Ref. 23, p. 56.
53. See also Grafstein, op cit, Ref. 33, p. 24.
54. See N. Garver, op cit, Ref. 15, p. 220
55. and Freeden, ibid, pp. 55-56.
56. For example, Steven Lukes argues that the concept of power 'is not, directly and overtly, appraisive'. However, a given exercise of power 'can favour certain ways of apprising the situation while disfavouring, and in some cases precluding, others'.
57. See Steven Lukes, 'A reply to K.I. Macdonald', British Journal of Political Science, 7, 1977, pp. 418-9, p. 418; Similarly, Baldwin suggests that within the neorealist framework of international relations, 'security' is a highly desirable outcome, and hence its appraisive content is unambiguous. Yet from other theoretical perspectives, security may not be seen as having this same exceptionally positive valence.
58. See Baldwin op cit, Ref. 29, p. 10.
59. Gallie likewise presents these criteria together at one point in his article - e.g. Gallie, op cit, Ref. 6, p. 184.
60. Gallie, ibid, pp. 171-172.
61. Gallie, ibid, p. 185.
62. See also Gallie, 'Art as an essentially contested concept', Ref. 7, pp. 102-103, 108.
63. Gallie, op cit, Ref. 6, p. 187; In Philosophy & the Historical Understanding, he refers to these as the socialist/collectivist versus liberal/individualist conceptions.
64. See Gallie, Philosophy & the Historical Understanding, Ref. 8, p. 181.
65. Gallie, op cit, Ref. 6, pp. 184-185.
66. Grafstein, op cit, Ref. 33, p. 24.
67. Christine Swanton, 'On the "essential contentedness" of political concepts', Ethics, 95, 1985, pp. 811-827, p. 815.
68. Care, op cit, Ref. 23, pp. 15-16.
69. Freeden, 'Assembling', Ref. 23, p. 76.
70. Gallie, op cit, Ref. 6, p. 172.
71. Gallie, ibid, p. 186.
72. Gallie, ibid, p. 174.
73. MacIntyre, op cit, Ref. 23, pp. 2-3.
74. Care, op cit, Ref. 23, p.14.
75. Gray, op cit, Ref. 19, pp. 392-393.
76. Freeden, 'Assembling', Ref. 23, pp. 75-76
77. and Michael Freeden, Ideology: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 54-60.
78. Freeden, 'Assembling', Ref. 23, pp. 76.
79. Gallie, op cit, Ref. 6, p. 172.
80. Kenneth Smith, 'Mutually contested concepts and their standard general use', Journal of Classical Sociology, 2, 2002, pp. 329-343, p. 332
81. Grafstein, op cit, Ref. 33, pp. 19, 25.
82. Freeden, 'Assembling', Ref. 23, p. 60.
83. Gallie, op cit, Ref. 6, p. 180.
84. Gallie, ibid, pp. 180, 186.
85. Gallie, ibid, p. 186.
86. Gallie, ibid, pp. 176-177.
87. See also p. 178.
88. Gallie, ibid, p. 186.
89. Lukes, op cit, Ref. 39, p. 418.
90. Steven Lukes, Power: A Radical View, 2nd edition (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005 [Originally published in 1974]), pp. 34, 45, and 27, respectively.
91. Ernest Gellner, 'The concept of a story', Ratio, 9, 1967, pp. 49-66, p. 53.
92. Freeden, 'Assembling', Ref. 23, p. 60.
93. MacIntyre, op cit, Ref. 23, p. 2
94. Gray, op cit, Ref. 19, p. 390
95. and Swanton, op cit, Ref. 46, p. 816.
96. Gallie, op cit, Ref. 6, p. 193.
97. Gallie, ibid, pp. 178-180.
98. Gallie, ibid, p. 180.
99. For example, Gallie, ibid, pp. 189-190, 193.
100. Gallie, ibid, p. 189. Italics in original.
101. N. Garver, op cit, Ref. 15, p. 220.
102. Swanton, op cit, Ref. 46, p. 815.
103. Care, op cit, Ref. 23, pp. 15-16.
104. Freeden, 'Assembling', Ref. 23, p. 76.
105. Shapiro, op cit, Ref. 23, p. 66.
106. See also p. 67.
107. Eugene Garver, 'Essentially contested concepts: The ethics and tactics of argument', Philosophy and Rhetoric, 23, 1990, pp. 251-270, p. 263.
108. E. Garver, ibid, p. 263, no. 26.
109. Freeden, 'Assembling', Ref. 23, p. 60.
110. Gray, op cit, Ref. 19, p. 392.
111. This section follows the idea, proposed by some commentators on Gallie, that his framework can indeed be applied to the domain of real-world politics.
112. David Beetham, 'Key principles and indices for a democratic audit', in David Beetham (Ed.), Defining and Measuring Democracy (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1994), p. 27.
113. Waldron, op cit, Ref. 25, pp. 148-149.
114. Gallie, op cit, Ref. 6, p. 184. Italics in original.
115. Dahl, op cit, Ref. 5, Chapter 2
116. Giovanni Sartori, The Theory of Democracy Revisited (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1987), pp. 7-8
117. Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), p. 3.
118. Joseph Schumpeter, in evaluating different conceptions of democracy, similarly points to the negative consequences of the 'classical' theory of democracy, which he critiques. See Joseph A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (New York: Harper and Row, 1942), p. 260.
119. Beetham again dissents from this evaluation. He suggests that 'most of the disagreements turn out on closer inspection to be not about the meaning of democracy, but about its desirability and practicality'. Beetham, op cit, Ref. 85, p. 27. However, different views of the practicality, and especially the desirability, of democracy are common, routinely normative appraisal.
120. Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman, OK: University of Colorado Press, 1991)
121. Pierre Rosanvallon, 'The history of the word "democracy" in France', Journal of Democracy, 6, 1995, pp. 140-154.
122. O'Donnell and Schmitter, op cit, Ref. 88, p. 13.
123. David Collier and Steven Levitsky, 'Democracy with adjectives: conceptual innovation in comparative research', World Politics, 49, 1997, pp. 430-451.
124. Gallie himself (op cit, Ref. 6, p. 171) employs this kind of qualifier in his discussion of contested concepts.
125. O'Donnell and Schmitter, op cit, Ref. 88, p. 13.
126. See David Collier, 'The Bureaucratic Authoritarian Model', in David Collier (Ed.), The New Authoritarianism in Latin America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979).
127. See also Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, 'Inducements versus constraints: Disaggregating corporatism', American Political Science Review, 73, 1979, pp. 967-986.
128. Ruth B. Collier, Paths Towards Democracy: Working Class and Elites in Western Europe and South America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 27
129. Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993), p. 15.
130. Collier and Levitsky, op cit, Ref. 92, p. 443.
131. Pamela Constable and Arturo Valenzuela, A Nation of Enemies: Chile under Pinochet (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991), p. 80.
132. For examples see, Constable and Valenzuela, ibid, pp. 10, 12, 163, 165, 188, 305.
133. Constable and Valenzuela, ibid, p. 76.
134. Brian Loveman, '"Protected democracies" and military guardianship: political transitions in Latin America, 1978-1993', Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 36, 1994, pp. 105-189, pp. 108-111.
135. O'Donnell and Schmitter, op cit, Ref. 88. This is Volume 4 of Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead (Eds), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Prospects for Democracy (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986).
136. ArthurMacEwan, 'Transitions from authoritarian rule', Latin American Perspectives, 15, 1988, pp. 115-130.
137. Daniel Levine, 'Paradigmlost: Dependence to democracy',WorldPolitics, 40, 1988, pp. 377-394, pp. 378, 394.
138. For example, O'Donnell and Schmitter, op cit, Ref. 88, p. 13
139. Frank M. Bryan, Real Democracy: The New England Town Meeting and How it Works (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2004).
140. Robert Fishkin and Peter Laslett, Debating Deliberative Democracy (Oxford: Blackwell, 2003).
141. Rosanvallon, op cit, Ref. 90, p. 141.
142. See Harvey Starr, 'Democratic dominoes: Diffusion approaches to the spread of democracy in the international system', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 35, 1991, pp. 356-381
143. Jeffery Kopstein and David Reilly, 'Geographic diffusion and the transformation of the postcommunist world', World Politics, 53, 2000, pp. 1-37
144. Daniel Brinks and Michael Coppedge, 'Diffusion is no illusion: Neighbor emulation in the third wave of democracy', Comparative Political Studies, 2006, forthcoming). For an excellent overview of this literature,
145. see Steven Levitsky and Lucan A. Way, 'Competitive authoritarianism: The origins and dynamics of hybrid regimes in the post-cold war era' (Department of Government, Harvard University), Chapter 2.
146. See Huntington, op cit, Ref. 90
147. and John Markoff, Waves of Democracy: Social Movements and Political Change (Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 1996).
148. Philippe C. Schmitter, 'International context and consolidation', in Laurence Whitehead (Ed.), The International Dimensions of Democratization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 37-38.
149. See also Whitehead's Chapter 1, pp. 3-25, in the same volume.
150. Schumpeter, op cit, Ref. 88, pp. 251-252.
151. Schumpeter, ibid, pp. 268-269.
152. Dahl, op cit, Ref. 5, p. 2.
153. M. Coppedge and W. H. Reinicke, 'Measuring polyarchy', Studies in Comparative International Development, 25, 1990, pp. 51-72.
154. O'Donnell and Schmitter, op cit, Ref. 88, p. 13.
155. Sebastian Mazzuca, 'Access versus exercise: Reconceptualizing democracy in Latin America', Studies in Comparative International Development, 41, 2007, forthcoming).
156. Waldron, op cit, Ref. 25. For another study that evokes Gallie in analyzing the rule of law,
157. see Shannon C. Stimson, 'Constitutionalism and the rule of law', in John S. Dryzek, Bonnie Honig and Anne Philips (Eds), The Oxford Handbook of Political Theory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, forthcoming).
158. The legal disputes following the 2000 Presidential election centred on the counting and recounting of the Florida presidential ballots, which would ultimately decide the election. The legality of vote recounts was taken up by the Supreme Court, which eventually ruled in favour of Republican nominee George W. Bush.
159. Waldron, op cit, Ref. 25, p. 148.
160. Waldron, ibid, pp. 150-158.
161. Waldron, ibid, p. 164.
162. While Waldron makes extensive use of Gallie's criteria, the following presentation specifically organizes the discussion around Criteria I to VII, taken in that order. It merits emphasis that Waldron does not pretend to address all possible conceptions entailed in rule of law. For example, his discussion does not encompass the concerns of O'Donnell's analysis focused on regions within national states in which the legal and bureaucratic system of the state, and hence the rule of law, is only minimally present. See Guillermo O'Donnell, 'Democracy, Law and Comparative Politics', Studies in Comparative International Development, 36, 2001, pp. 7-36.
163. Waldron, op cit, Ref. 25, pp. 154, 157.
164. Waldron, ibid, pp. 153-154.
165. Cited in Waldron, ibid, p. 137.
166. Cited in Waldron, ibid, p. 138.
167. M. Krygier, 'Rule of law', International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences 2004 (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2001), pp. 13403-13408, p. 13405 [sic ].
168. Waldron, op cit, Ref. 25, pp. 154-155.
169. Lon L. Fuller, The Morality of Law, Revised Edition (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1969) pp. 56-57.
170. Cited in: Waldron, ibid, p. 154.
171. This practical closure, of course, depends on context. Stimson notes one reason for calling these standards into question: Under a highly repressive government, they cease to be meaningful. These standards should not be understood in a 'political vacuum'. See Stimson, op cit, Ref. 117, p. 320. Correspondingly, while Waldron's characterization of this aspect of the rule of law as 'closed' may be appropriate for the debate in Florida, the formal attributes of the rule of law are still contested in scholarly debates.
172. Waldron, op cit, Ref. 25, p. 158.
173. For a further discussion of the ongoing debates over the meaning of the rule of law see Krygier, op cit, Ref. 127, p. 13403 [sic ];
174. and Stimson, op cit, Ref. 117, pp. 321-322.
175. Waldron, op cit, Ref. 25, pp. 156-157.
176. Waldron, ibid, p. 158.
177. Waldron, ibid, p. 145.
178. Waldron, ibid, pp. 146-147.
179. Michael Kramer, 'Bush gives pre-inaugural address', New York Daily News (November 27, 2000), p. 5.
180. The first part of this quotation is also cited in Waldron, ibid, p. 146.
181. Waldron, ibid, p. 146. In another statement, Baker makes the more specific argument that under Florida and US law, December 12 was the deadline for selection of Florida's representatives to the US Electoral College. Hence, the Supreme Court decision on December 12 met that aspect of legality.
182. See James Baker, 'Observations on the Florida Electoral Dispute', Stanford Law and Policy Review, 13, 2002, pp. 15-18, p. 16.
183. This framing of finality versus fidelity was suggested by Robert Kagan, personal communication.
184. Waldron, op cit, Ref. 25, p. 150.
185. Waldron, ibid, p. 158.
186. See Edward Levy, Introduction to Legal Reasoning (Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press, 1949)
187. and Robert Kagan, Adversarial Legalism: The American Way of Law (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001).
188. Scott Brewer, 'Explanatory reasoning: Semantics, pragmatics, and the rational force of legal argument by analogy', Harvard Law Review, 109, 1996, pp. 923-1028.
189. Waldron, op cit, Ref. 25, pp. 161-163.
190. Waldron, ibid, p. 163.
191. Waldron, ibid, p. 162.
192. Waldron, ibid, p. 163.
193. Gary Rosen, 'Reconsidering "Bush v. Gore"', Commentary, 112 (November 2001), pp. 35-41, p. 36.
194. Rosen, ibid, p. 37. These arguments reflect the widely held sentiment among conservative jurists that the equal protection clause has been applied too broadly and that it should only be used when purposeful discrimination against a minority is found to exist. Because the Supreme Court's majority decision relied upon the equal protection clause without finding purposeful discrimination, Rosen argues that the reasoning conflicts with conservative principles.
195. Cass R. Sunstein, '"Bush v. Gore" and the Conservatives: Gary Rosen & Critics', Commentary, 113 (March 2002), pp. 10-24, p. 21.
196. Waldron, op cit, Ref. 25, p. 152.
197. Waldron, ibid, p. 140.
198. Waldron, ibid, p. 163.
199. Waldron, ibid, p. 138.
200. Other discussions of the relation between Gallie and Wittgenstein include Freeden 'Assembling', Ref. 23, pp. 70-73
201. and Glen Newey, 'Philosophy, politics, and contestability', Journal of Political Ideologies, 6, 2001, pp. 252-253.
202. Gallie 'Art as an essentially contested concept', Ref. 7, p. 100.
203. Gallie, ibid, pp. 102, 100, and 101, respectively.
204. Eleanor Rosch's pioneering work in this tradition directly takes as a point of departure the idea of family resemblance. See Eleanor Rosch and C. B. Mervis, 'Family resemblance: Studies in the internal structure of categories', Cognitive Psychology, 7, 1975, pp. 573-605
205. and Eleanor Rosch, 'Principles of categorization', in E. Rosch and B. B. Lloyd (Eds), Cognition and Categorization (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1978).
206. An up-to-date overview of this large body of work is found in John R. Taylor, Linguistic Categorization: Prototypes in Linguistic Theory, 3rd edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).
207. Among many issues that would merit consideration, one is whether this framework should be understood as applying to ordinary usage, to scholarly usage, and/or to public usage.