The treatment of coronary artery disease in patients with chronic kidney disease

QJM: An International Journal of Medicine

Volumn 99, Issue 11, 2006, Pages 723-736

  Edwards, Nicholas C ^a   Steeds, R P ^b   Ferro, C J ^b   Townend, J N ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

^b QUEEN ELIZABETH HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ABCIXIMAB; ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANTILIPEMIC AGENT; ANTITHROMBOCYTIC AGENT; ATORVASTATIN; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; EZETIMIBE; FIBRINOGEN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; FLUINDOSTATIN; FOSINOPRIL; HEPARIN; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; MINERALOCORTICOID ANTAGONIST; PLACEBO; PRAVASTATIN; RAMIPRIL; ROSUVASTATIN; SIMVASTATIN; SPIRONOLACTONE; TRANILAST;

ANGIOCARDIOGRAPHY; ARTERIOSCLEROSIS; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BLEEDING; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIAL; CORONARY ARTERY BYPASS GRAFT; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; CORONARY STENT; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG SAFETY; HEART INFARCTION; HEART MUSCLE REVASCULARIZATION; HEMODIALYSIS; HIGH RISK PATIENT; HUMAN; HYPERKALEMIA; IN-STENT RESTENOSIS; INCIDENCE; INTERMETHOD COMPARISON; KIDNEY FAILURE; LOW DRUG DOSE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PERCUTANEOUS CORONARY INTERVENTION; PREVALENCE; PRIMARY PREVENTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; RISK REDUCTION; SECONDARY PREVENTION; TRANSLUMINAL CORONARY ANGIOPLASTY; TREATMENT OUTCOME; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT;

EID: 33750630991     PISSN: 14602725     EISSN: 14602393     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/qjmed/hcl101     Document Type: Review

References (134)

1. USRDS 2000 Annual Data Report. National Institutes of health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney disease. 2000.
2. Foley RN, Parfrey PS, Sarnak MJ. Clinical epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis 1998; 32:S112-19.
3. Manjunath G, Tighiouart H, Ibrahim H, MacLeod B, Salem DN, Griffith JL, Coresh J, Levey AS, Sarnak MJ. Level of kidney function as a risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular outcomes in the community. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 41:47-55.
4. Muntner P, He J, Hamm L, Loria C, Whelton PK. Renal insufficiency and subsequent death resulting from cardiovascular disease in the United States. J Am Soc Nephrol 2002; 13:745-53.
5. Go AS, Chertow GM, Fan D, McCulloch CE, Hsu CY. Chronic kidney disease and the risks of death, cardiovascular events, and hospitalization. N Engl J Med 2004; 351:1296-305.
6. Anavekar NS, McMurray JJ, Velazquez EJ, Solomon SD, Kober L, Rouleau JL, White HD, Nordlander R, Maggioni A, Dickstein K, Zelenkofske S, Leimberger JD, Califf RM, Pfeffer MA. Relation between renal dysfunction and cardiovascular outcomes after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2004; 351:1285-95.
7. Herzog CA, Ma JZ, Collins AJ. Poor long-term survival after acute myocardial infarction among patients on long-term dialysis. N Engl J Med 1998; 339:799-805.
8. Al Suwaidi J, Reddan DN, Williams K, Pieper KS, Harrington RA, Califf RM, Granger CB, Ohman EM, Holmes DR Jr. Prognostic implications of abnormalities in renal function in patients with acute coronary syndromes. Circulation 2002; 106:974-80.
9. Culleton BF, Larson MG, Evans JC, Wilson PW, Barrett BJ, Parfrey PS, Levy D. Prevalence and correlates of elevated serum creatinine levels: the Framingham Heart Study. Arch Intern Med 1999; 159:1785-90.
10. Cockcroft DW, Gault MH. Prediction of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine. Nephron 1976; 16:31-41.
11. Levey AS, Bosch JP, Lewis JB, Greene T, Rogers N, Roth D. A more accurate method to estimate glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine: A new prediction equation. Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group. Ann Intern Med 1999; 130:461-70.
12. National Kidney Foundation K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines for chronic kidney disease: Evaluation, classification, and stratification. Am J Kidney Dis 2002; 39:S1-266.
13. Foley RN, Murray AM, Li S, Herzog CA, McBean AM, Eggers PW, Collins AJ. Chronic kidney disease and the risk for cardiovascular disease, renal replacement, and death in the United States Medicare population, 1998 to 1999. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005; 16:489-95.
14. Fried LF, Shlipak MG, Crump C, Bleyer AJ, Gottdiener JS, Kronmal RA, Kuller LH, Newman AB. Renal insufficiency as a predictor of cardiovascular outcomes and mortality in elderly individuals. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 41:1364-72.
15. Henry RM, Kostense PJ, Bos G, Dekker JM, Nijpels G, Heine RJ, Bouter LM, Stehouwer CD. Mild renal insufficiency is associated with increased cardiovascular mortality: The Hoorn Study. Kidney Int 2002; 62:1402-7.
16. Rahman M, Pressel S, Davis BR, et al. Cardiovascular outcomes in high-risk hypertensive patients stratified by baseline glomerular filtration rate. Ann Intern Med 2006; 144:172-80.
17. Hegarty J, Foley RN. Anaemia, renal insufficiency and cardiovascular outcome. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2001; 16(Suppl. 1):102-4.
18. Chertow GM, Burke SK, Raggi P. Sevelamer attenuates the progression of coronary and aortic calcification in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 2002; 62:245-52.
19. Goodman WG, Goldin J, Kuizon BD, Yoon C, Gales B, Sider D, Wang Y, Chung J, Emerick A, Greaser L, Elashoff RM, Salusky IB. Coronary-artery calcification in young adults with end-stage renal disease who are undergoing dialysis. N Engl J Med 2000; 342:1478-83.
20. Block GA, Hulbert-Shearon TE, Levin NW, Port FK. Association of serum phosphorus and phosphate product with mortality risk in chronic hemodialysis patients: A national study. Am J Kidney Dis 1998; 31:607-17.
21. Koch M, Kutkuhn B, Trenkwalder E, Bach D, Grabensee B, Dieplinger H, Kronenberg F. Apolipoprotein B, fibrinogen, HDL cholesterol, and apolipoprotein(a) phenotypes predict coronary artery disease in hemodialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 1997; 8:1889-98.
22. Tamashiro M, Iseki K, Sunagawa O, Inoue T, Higa S, Afuso H, Fukiyama K. Significant association between the progression of coronary artery calcification and dyslipidemia in patients on chronic hemodialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 2001; 38:64-9.
23. Manns BJ, Burgess ED, Hyndman ME, Parsons HG, Schaefer JP, Scott-Douglas NW. Hyperhomocyst(e)inemia and the prevalence of atherosclerotic vascular disease in patients with end-stage renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis 1999; 34:669-77.
24. Robinson K, Gupta A, Dennis V, Arheart K, Chaudhary D, Green R, Vigo P, Mayer EL, Selhub J, Kutner M, Jacobsen DW. Hyperhomocysteinemia confers an independent increased risk of atherosclerosis in end-stage renal disease and is closely linked to plasma folate and pyridoxine concentrations. Circulation 1996; 94:2743-8.
25. Al Saady NM, Leatham EW, Gupta S, Kwan JT, Eastwood JB, Seymour CA. Monocyte expression of tissue factor and adhesion molecules: The link with accelerated coronary artery disease in patients with chronic renal failure. Heart 1999; 81:134-40.
26. Witko-Sarsat V, Friedlander M, Nguyen KT, Capeillere-Blandin C, Nguyen AT, Canteloup S, Dayer JM, Jungers P, Drueke T, Descamps-Latscha B. Advanced oxidation protein products as novel mediators of inflammation and monocyte activation in chronic renal failure. J Immunol 1998; 161:2524-32.
27. Boaz M, Smetana S, Weinstein T, Matas Z, Gafter U, Iaina A, Knecht A, Weissgarten Y, Brunner D, Fainaru M, Green MS. Secondary prevention with antioxidants of cardiovascular disease in endstage renal disease (SPACE): Randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2000; 356:1213-18.
28. Handelman GJ, Walter MF, Adhikarla R, Gross J, Dallal GE, Levin NW, Blumberg JB. Elevated plasma F2-isoprostanes in patients on long-term hemodialysis. Kidney Int 2001; 59:1960-6.
29. Schettler V, Wieland E, Methe H, Schuff-Werner P, Muller GA. Oxidative stress during dialysis: Effect on free radical scavenging enzyme (FRSE) activities and glutathione (GSH) concentration in granulocytes. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1998; 13:2588-93.
30. Tepel M, van der GM, Statz M, Jankowski J, Zidek W. The antioxidant acetylcysteine reduces cardiovascular events in patients with end-stage renal failure: A randomized, controlled trial. Circulation 2003; 107:992-5.
31. Campese VM, Romoff MS, Levitan D, Lane K, Massry SG. Mechanisms of autonomic nervous system dysfunction in uremia. Kidney Int 1981; 20:246-53.
32. Hathaway DK, Cashion AK, Milstead EJ, Winsett RP, Cowan PA, Wicks MN, Gaber AO. Autonomic dysregulation in patients awaiting kidney transplantation. Am J Kidney Dis 1998; 32:221-9.
33. Appel LJ, Middleton J, Miller ER III, Lipkowitz M, Norris K, Agodoa LY, Bakris G, Douglas JG, Charleston J, Gassman J, Greene T, Jamerson K, Kusek JW, Lewis JA, Phillips RA, Rostand SG, Wright JT. The rationale and design of the AASK cohort study. J Am Soc Nephrol 2003; 14:S166-72.
34. Feldman HI, Appel LJ, Chertow GM, et al. The Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort (CRIC) Study: Design and Methods. J Am Soc Nephrol 2003; 14:S148-53.
35. London GM, Marchais SJ, Guerin AP, Metivier F, Adda H. Arterial structure and function in end-stage renal disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2002; 17:1713-24.
36. Savage T, Clarke AL, Giles M, Tomson CR, Raine AE. Calcified plaque is common in the carotid and femoral arteries of dialysis patients without clinical vascular disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1998; 13:2004-12.
37. Schwarz U, Buzello M, Ritz E, Stein G, Raabe G, Wiest G, Mall G, Amann K. Morphology of coronary atherosclerotic lesions in patients with end-stage renal failure. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2000; 15:218-23.
38. Herzog CA. Sudden cardiac death and acute myocardial infarction in dialysis patients: Perspectives of a cardiologist. Semin Nephrol 2005; 25:363-6.
39. Jardine AG, McLaughlin K. Cardiovascular complications of renal disease. Heart 2001; 86:459-66.
40. London GM, Marchais SJ, Guerin AP. Arterial stiffness and function in end-stage renal disease. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 2004; 11:202-9.
41. Safar ME, London GM, Plante GE. Arterial stiffness and kidney function. Hypertension 2004; 43:163-8.
42. Parfrey PS, Collingwood P, Foley RN, Bahrle A. Images in nephrology. Left ventricular disorders detected by M-mode echocardiography in chronic uraemia. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1996; 11:1328-31.
43. Mark PB, Johnston N, Groenning BA, Foster JE, Blyth KG, Martin TN, Steedman T, Dargie HJ, Jardine AG. Redefinition of uremic cardiomyopathy by contrast-enhanced cardiac magnetic resonance imaging. Kidney Int 2006; 69:1839-45.
44. Borsboom H, Smans L, Cramer MJ, Kelder JC, Kooistra MP, Vos PF, van Jaarsveld BC. Long-term blood pressure monitoring and echocardiographic findings in patients with end-stage renal disease: Reverse epidemiology explained? Neth J Med 2005; 63:399-406.
45. Mattace-Raso FU, van der Cammen TJ, Hofman A, van Popele NM, Bos ML, Schalekamp MA, Asmar R, Reneman RS, Hoeks AP, Breteler MM, Witteman JC. Arterial stiffness and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke: The Rotterdam Study. Circulation 2006; 113:657-63.
46. Nawrot TS, Staessen JA, Thijs L, Fagard RH, Tikhonoff V, Wang JG, Franklin SS. Should pulse pressure become part of the Framingham risk score? J Hum Hypertens 2004; 18:279-86.
47. Willum-Hansen T, Staessen JA, Torp-Pedersen C, Rasmussen S, Thijs L, Ibsen H, Jeppesen J. Prognostic value of aortic pulse wave velocity as index of arterial stiffness in the general population. Circulation 2006; 113:664-70.
48. Blacher J, Guerin AP, Pannier B, Marchais SJ, Safar ME, London GM. Impact of aortic stiffness on survival in endstage renal disease. Circulation 1999; 99:2434-9.
49. Klassen PS, Lowrie EG, Reddan DN, DeLong ER, Coladonato JA, Szczech LA, Lazarus JM, Owen WF Jr. Association between pulse pressure and mortality in patients undergoing maintenance hemodialysis. JAMA 2002; 287:1548-55.
50. Blacher J, Asmar R, Djane S, London GM, Safar ME. Aortic pulse wave velocity as a marker of cardiovascular risk in hypertensive patients. Hypertension 1999; 33:1111-17.
51. Guerin AP, Blacher J, Pannier B, Marchais SJ, Safar ME, London GM. Impact of aortic stiffness attenuation on survival of patients in end-stage renal failure. Circulation 2001; 103:987-92.
52. Safar ME, London GM. Therapeutic studies and arterial stiffness in hypertension: Recommendations of the European Society of Hypertension. The Clinical Committee of Arterial Structure and Function. Working Group on Vascular Structure and Function of the European Society of Hypertension. J Hypertens 2000; 18:1527-35.
53. Williams B, Lacy PS, Thom SM, Cruickshank K, Stanton A, Collier D, Hughes AD, Thurston H, O'Rourke M. Differential impact of blood pressure-lowering drugs on central aortic pressure and clinical outcomes: Principal results of the Conduit Artery Function Evaluation (CAFE) study. Circulation 2006; 113:1213-25.
54. Landray MJ, Thambyrajah J, McGlynn FJ, Jones HJ, Baigent C, Kendall MJ, Townend JN, Wheeler DC. Epidemiological evaluation of known and suspected cardiovascular risk factors in chronic renal impairment. Am J Kidney Dis 2001; 38:537-46.
55. Anavekar NS, Pfeffer MA. Cardiovascular risk in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int Suppl 2004; (Suppl.):S11-15.
56. Reddan DN, Szczech L, Bhapkar MV, Moliterno DJ, Califf RM, Ohman EM, Berger PB, Hochman JS, Van De WF, Harrington RA, Newby LK. Renal function, concomitant medication use and outcomes following acute coronary syndromes. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2005; 20:2105-12.
57. Wright RS, Reeder GS, Herzog CA, Albright RC, Williams BA, Dvorak DL, Miller WL, Murphy JG, Kopecky SL, Jaffe AS. Acute myocardial infarction and renal dysfunction: A high-risk combination. Ann Intern Med 2002; 137:563-70.
58. Collaborative meta-analysis of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke in high risk patients. Br Med J 2002; 324:71-86.
59. Fernandez JS, Sadaniantz BT, Sadaniantz A. Review of antithrombotic agents used for acute coronary syndromes in renal patients. Am J Kidney Dis 2003; 42:446-55.
60. Gaspari F, Vigano G, Orisio S, Bonati M, Livio M, Remuzzi G. Aspirin prolongs bleeding time in uremia by a mechanism distinct from platelet cyclooxygenase inhibition. J Clin Invest 1987; 79:1788-97.
61. Baigent C, Landray M, Leaper C, et al. First United Kingdom Heart and Renal Protection (UK-HARP-I) study: Biochemical efficacy and safety of simvastatin and safety of low-dose aspirin in chronic kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis 2005; 45:473-84.
62. Berger AK, Duval S, Krumholz HM. Aspirin, beta-blocker, and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor therapy in patients with end-stage renal disease and an acute myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 42:201-8.
63. Best PJ, Lennon R, Gersh BJ, Ting HH, Rihal CS, Bell MR, Herzog CA, Holmes DR Jr, Berger PB. Safety of abciximab in patients with chronic renal insufficiency who are undergoing percutaneous coronary interventions. Am Heart J 2003; 146:345-50.
64. Mosenkis A, Berns JS. Use of low molecular weight heparins and glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors in patients with chronic kidney disease. Semin Dial 2004; 17:411-15.
65. Freeman RV, Mehta RH, Al Badr W, Cooper JV, Kline-Rogers E, Eagle KA. Influence of concurrent renal dysfunction on outcomes of patients with acute coronary syndromes and implications of the use of glycoprotein IIb/ IIIa inhibitors. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 41:718-24.
66. Reddan DN, O'Shea JC, Sarembock IJ, Williams KA, Pieper KS, Santoian E, Owen WF, Kitt MM, Tcheng JE. Treatment effects of eptifibatide in planned coronary stent implantation in patients with chronic kidney disease (ESPRIT Trial). Am J Cardiol 2003; 91:17-21.
67. Bostom AG, Shemin D, Lapane KL, Sutherland P, Nadeau MR, Wilson PW, Yoburn D, Bausserman L, Tofler G, Jacques PF, Selhub J, Rosenberg IH. Hyperhomocysteinemia, hyperfibrinogenemia, and lipoprotein (a) excess in maintenance dialysis patients: A matched case-control study. Atherosclerosis 1996; 125:91-101.
68. Shoji T, Nishizawa Y, Kawagishi T, Tanaka M, Kawasaki K, Tabata T, Inoue T, Morii H. Atherogenic lipoprotein changes in the absence of hyperlipidemia in patients with chronic renal failure treated by hemodialysis. Atherosclerosis 1997; 131:229-36.
69. Foley RN, Parfrey PS, Harnett JD, Kent GM, Martin CJ, Murray DC, Barre PE. Clinical and echocardiographic disease in patients starting end-stage renal disease therapy. Kidney Int 1995; 47:186-92.
70. Rostand SG, Kirk KA, Rutsky EA. Dialysis-associated ischemic heart disease: Insights from coronary angiography. Kidney Int 1984; 25:653-9.
71. Seliger SL, Weiss NS, Gillen DL, Kestenbaum B, Ball A, Sherrard DJ, Stehman-Breen CO. HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors are associated with reduced mortality in ESRD patients. Kidney Int 2002; 61:297-304.
72. Wanner C, Krane V, Marz W, Olschewski M, Mann JF, Ruf G, Ritz E. Atorvastatin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus undergoing hemodialysis. N Engl J Med 2005; 353:238-48.
73. Baigent C, Landry M. Study of Heart and Renal Protection (SHARP). Kidney Int Suppl 2003; 84:S207-10.
74. Fellstrom B, Zannad F, Schmieder R, Holdaas H, Jardine A, Rose H, Wilpshaar W. Effect of rosuvastatin on outcomes in chronic haemodialysis patients - design and rationale of the AURORA study. Curr Control Trials Cardiovasc Med 2005; 6:9.
75. Tonelli M, Moye L, Sacks FM, Kiberd B, Curhan G. Pravastatin for secondary prevention of cardiovascular events in persons with mild chronic renal insufficiency. Ann Intern Med 2003; 138:98-104.
76. Tonelli M, Isles C, Curhan GC, Tonkin A, Pfeffer MA, Shepherd J, Sacks FM, Furberg C, Cobbe SM, Simes J, Craven T, West M. Effect of pravastatin on cardiovascular events in people with chronic kidney disease. Circulation 2004; 110:1557-63.
77. Lemos PA, Serruys PW, de Feyter P, Mercado NF, Goedhart D, Saia F, Arampatzis CA, Soares PR, Ciccone M, Arquati M, Cortellaro M, Rutsch W, Legrand V. Long-term fluvastatin reduces the hazardous effect of renal impairment on four-year atherosclerotic outcomes (a LIPS substudy). Am J Cardiol 2005; 95:445-51.
78. Remuzzi G, Ruggenenti P, Perico N. Chronic renal diseases: renoprotective benefits of renin-angiotensin system inhibition. Ann Intern Med 2002; 136:604-15.
79. Hou FF, Zhang X, Zhang GH, Xie D, Chen PY, Zhang WR, Jiang JP, Liang M, Wang GB, Liu ZR, Geng RW. Efficacy and safety of benazepril for advanced chronic renal insufficiency. N Engl J Med 2006; 354:131-40.
80. Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Bain RP, Rohde RD. The effect of angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibition on diabetic nephropathy. The Collaborative Study Group. N Engl J Med 1993; 329:1456-62.
81. Nakao N, Yoshimura A, Morita H, Takada M, Kayano T, Ideura T. Combination treatment of angiotensin-II receptor blocker and angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor in non-diabetic renal disease (COOPERATE): A randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2003; 361:117-24.
82. Ruggenenti P, Perna A, Mosconi L, Pisoni R, Remuzzi G. Urinary protein excretion rate is the best independent predictor of ESRF in non-diabetic proteinuric chronic nephropathies. 'Gruppo Italiano di Studi Epidemiologici in Nefrologia' (GISEN). Kidney Int 1998; 53:1209-16.
83. Remuzzi G, Bertani T. Pathophysiology of progressive nephropathies. N Engl J Med 1998; 339:1448-56.
84. Casas JP, Chua W, Loukogeorgakis S, Vallance P, Smeeth L, Hingorani AD, MacAllister RJ. Effect of inhibitors of the renin-angiotensin system and other antihypertensive drugs on renal outcomes: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2005; 366:2026-33.
85. Dahlof B, Sever PS, Poulter NR, Wedel H, Beevers DG, Caulfield M, Collins R, Kjeldsen SE, Kristinsson A, McInnes GT, Mehlsen J, Nieminen M, O'Brien E, Ostergren J. Prevention of cardiovascular events with an antihypertensive regimen of amlodipine adding perindopril as required versus atenolol adding bendroflumethiazide as required, in the Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial-Blood Pressure Lowering Arm (ASCOT-BPLA): A multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005; 366:895-906.
86. Effects of ramipril on cardiovascular and microvascular outcomes in people with diabetes mellitus: Results of the HOPE study and MICRO-HOPE substudy. Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. Lancet 2000; 355:253-9.
87. Effect of ramipril on mortality and morbidity of survivors of acute myocardial infarction with clinical evidence of heart failure. The Acute Infarction Ramipril Efficacy (AIRE) Study Investigators. Lancet 1993; 342:821-8.
88. GISSI-3: Effects of lisinopril and transdermal glyceryl trinitrate singly and together on 6-week mortality and ventricular function after acute myocardial infarction. Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell'infarto Miocardico. Lancet 1994; 343:1115-22.
89. ISIS-4: A randomised factorial trial assessing early oral captopril, oral mononitrate, and intravenous magnesium sulphate in 58,050 patients with suspected acute myocardial infarction. ISIS-4 (Fourth International Study of Infarct Survival) Collaborative Group. Lancet 1995; 345:669-85.
90. Ambrosioni E, Borghi C, Magnani B. The effect of the angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor zofenopril on mortality and morbidity after anterior myocardial infarction. The Survival of Myocardial Infarction Long-Term Evaluation (SMILE) Study Investigators. N Engl J Med 1995; 332:80-5.
91. Kober L, Torp-Pedersen C, Carlsen JE, Bagger H, Eliasen P, Lyngborg K, Videbaek J, Cole DS, Auclert L, Pauly NC. A clinical trial of the angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor trandolapril in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction. Trandolapril Cardiac Evaluation (TRACE) Study Group. N Engl J Med 1995; 333:1670-6.
92. Pfeffer MA, Braunwald E, Moye LA, Basta L, Brown EJ, Jr., Cuddy TE, Davis BR, Geltman EM, Goldman S, Flaker GC. Effect of captopril on mortality and morbidity in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction. Results of the survival and ventricular enlargement trial. The SAVE Investigators. N Engl J Med 1992; 327:669-77.
93. Cohn JN, Johnson G, Ziesche S, Cobb F, Francis G, Tristani F, Smith R, Dunkman WB, Loeb H, Wong M. A comparison of enalapril with hydralazine-isosorbide dinitrate in the treatment of chronic congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med 1991; 325:303-10.
94. Effects of enalapril on mortality in severe congestive heart failure. Results of the Cooperative North Scandinavian Enalapril Survival Study (CONSENSUS). The CONSENSUS Trial Study Group. N Engl J Med 1987; 316:1429-35.
95. Fox KM. Efficacy of perindopril in reduction of cardiovascular events among patients with stable coronary artery disease: Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial (the EUROPA study). Lancet 2003; 362:782-8.
96. Yusuf S, Sleight P, Pogue J, Bosch J, Davies R, Dagenais G. Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med 2000; 342:145-53.
97. Mann JF, Gerstein HC, Pogue J, Bosch J, Yusuf S. Renal insufficiency as a predictor of cardiovascular outcomes and the impact of ramipril: The HOPE randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2001; 134:629-36.
98. Efrati S, Zaidenstein R, Dishy V, Beberashvili I, Sharist M, Averbukh Z, Golik A, Weissgarten J. ACE inhibitors and survival of hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 2002; 40:1023-9.
99. Coletta AP, Cleland JG, Freemantle N, Clark AL. Clinical trials update from the European Society of Cardiology Heart Failure meeting: SHAPE, BRING-UP 2 VAS, COLA II, FOSIDIAL, BETACAR, CASINO and meta-analysis of cardiac resynchronisation therapy. Eur J Heart Fail 2004; 6:673-6.
100. Zannad F, Kessler M, Grunfeld JP, Thuilliez C. FOSIDIAL: A randomised placebo controlled trial of the effects of fosinopril on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in haemodialysis patients. Study design and patients' baseline characteristics. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2002; 16:353-60.
101. Cohn JN, Tognoni G. A randomized trial of the angiotensin-receptor blocker valsartan in chronic heart failure. N Engl J Med 2001; 345:1667-75.
102. Dahlof B, Devereux RB, Kjeldsen SE, Julius S, Beevers G, de Faire U, Fyhrquist F, Ibsen H, Kristiansson K, Lederballe-Pedersen O, Lindholm LH, Nieminen MS, Omvik P, Oparil S, Wedel H. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in the Losartan Intervention For Endpoint reduction in hypertension study (LIFE): A randomised trial against atenolol. Lancet 2002; 359:995-1003.
103. Brenner BM, Cooper ME, de Zeeuw D, Keane WF, Mitch WE, Parving HH, Remuzzi G, Snapinn SM, Zhang Z, Shahinfar S. Effects of losartan on renal and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N Engl J Med 2001; 345:861-9.
104. Lewis EJ, Hunsicker LG, Clarke WR, Berl T, Pohl MA, Lewis JB, Ritz E, Atkins RC, Rohde R, Raz I. Renoprotective effect of the angiotensin-receptor antagonist irbesartan in patients with nephropathy due to type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2001; 345:851-60.
105. Mogensen CE, Neldam S, Tikkanen I, Oren S, Viskoper R, Watts RW, Cooper ME. Randomised controlled trial of dual blockade of renin-angiotensin system in patients with hypertension, microalbuminuria, and non-insulin dependent diabetes: The candesartan and lisinopril microalbuminuria (CALM) study. Br Med J 2000; 321:1440-4.
106. Wolf G, Ritz E. Combination therapy with ACE inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers to halt progression of chronic renal disease: pathophysiology and indications. Kidney Int 2005; 67:799-812.
107. Hollenberg NK. Aldosterone in the development and progression of renal injury. Kidney Int 2004; 66:1-9.
108. Ibrahim HN, Hostetter TH. Aldosterone in renal disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2003; 12:159-64.
109. Bianchi S, Bigazzi R, Campese VM. Antagonists of aldosterone and proteinuria in patients with CKD: An uncontrolled pilot study. Am J Kidney Dis 2005; 46:45-51.
110. Sato A, Hayashi K, Naruse M, Saruta T. Effectiveness of aldosterone blockade in patients with diabetic nephropathy. Hypertension 2003; 41:64-8.
111. Gross E, Rothstein M, Dombek S, Juknis HI. Effect of spironolactone on blood pressure and the reninangiotensin-aldosterone system in oligo-anuric hemo-dialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 2005; 46:94-101.
112. Fisher ND, Hollenberg NK. Renin inhibition: What are the therapeutic opportunities? J Am Soc Nephrol 2005; 16:592-9.
113. McCullough PA, Sandberg KR, Borzak S, Hudson MP, Garg M, Manley HJ. Benefits of aspirin and beta-blockade after myocardial infarction in patients with chronic kidney disease. Am Heart J 2002; 144:226-32.
114. Abbott KC, Trespalacios FC, Agodoa LY, Taylor AJ, Bakris GL. beta-Blocker use in long-term dialysis patients: Association with hospitalized heart failure and mortality. Arch Intern Med 2004; 164:2465-71.
115. Kahn JK, Rutherford BD, McConahay DR, Johnson WL, Giorgi LV, Hartzler GO. Short- and long-term outcome of percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty in chronic dialysis patients. Am Heart J 1990; 119:484-9.
116. Schoebel FC, Gradaus F, Ivens K, Heering P, Jax TW, Grabensee B, Strauer BE, Leschke M. Restenosis after elective coronary balloon angioplasty in patients with end stage renal disease: A case-control study using quantitative coronary angiography. Heart 1997; 78:337-42.
117. Ahmed WH, Shubrooks SJ, Gibson CM, Baim DS, Bittl JA. Complications and long-term outcome after percutaneous coronary angioplasty in chronic hemodialysis patients. Am Heart J 1994; 128:252-5.
118. Marso SP, Gimple LW, Philbrick JT, DiMarco JP. Effectiveness of percutaneous coronary interventions to prevent recurrent coronary events in patients on chronic hemodialysis. Am J Cardiol 1998; 82:378-80.
119. Reusser LM, Osborn LA, White HJ, Sexson R, Crawford MH. Increased morbidity after coronary angioplasty in patients on chronic hemodialysis. Am J Cardiol 1994; 73:965-7.
120. Best PJ, Lennon R, Ting HH, Bell MR, Rihal CS, Holmes DR, Berger PB. The impact of renal insufficiency on clinical outcomes in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary interventions. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002; 39:1113-19.
121. Le Feuvre C, Dambrin G, Helft G, Tabet S, Beygui F, Legendre C, Peraldi MN, Vacheron A, Metzger JP. Comparison of clinical outcome following coronary stenting or balloon angioplasty in dialysis versus non-dialysis patients. Am J Cardiol 2000; 85:1365-8.
122. Le Feuvre C, Dambrin G, Helft G, Beygui F, Touam M, Grunfeld JP, Vacheron A, Metzger JP. Clinical outcome following coronary angioplasty in dialysis patients: A case-control study in the era of coronary stenting. Heart 2001; 85:556-60.
123. Best PJ, Berger PB, Davis BR, Grines CL, Sadeghi HM, Williams BA, Willerson JT, Granett JR, Holmes DR Jr. Impact of mild or moderate chronic kidney disease on the frequency of restenosis: Results from the PRESTO trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004; 44:1786-91.
124. Hemmelgarn BR, Southern D, Culleton BF, Mitchell LB, Knudtson ML, Ghali WA. Survival after coronary revascularization among patients with kidney disease. Circulation 2004; 110:1890-5.
125. Liu JY, Birkmeyer NJ, Sanders JH, Morton JR, Henriques HF, Lahey SJ, Dow RW, Maloney C, DiScipio AW, Clough R, Leavitt BJ, O'Connor GT. Risks of morbidity and mortality in dialysis patients undergoing coronary artery bypass surgery. Northern New England Cardiovascular Disease Study Group. Circulation 2000; 102:2973-7.
126. Rao V, Weisel RD, Buth KJ, Cohen G, Borger MA, Shiono N, Bhatnagar G, Fremes SE, Goldman BS, Christakis GT. Coronary artery bypass grafting in patients with non-dialysis-dependent renal insufficiency. Circulation 1997; 96:II-43.
127. Weerasinghe A, Hornick P, Smith P, Taylor K, Ratnatunga C. Coronary artery bypass grafting in non-dialysis-dependent mild-to-moderate renal dysfunction. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2001; 121:1083-9.
128. Anderson RJ, O'Brien M, MaWhinney S, VillaNueva CB, Moritz TE, Sethi GK, Henderson WG, Hammermeister KE, Grover FL, Shroyer AL. Renal failure predisposes patients to adverse outcome after coronary artery bypass surgery. VA Cooperative Study #5. Kidney Int 1999; 55:1057-62.
129. Zakeri R, Freemantle N, Barnett V, Lipkin GW, Bonser RS, Graham TR, Rooney SJ, Wilson IC, Cramb R, Keogh BE, Pagano D. Relation between mild renal dysfunction and outcomes after coronary artery bypass grafting. Circulation 2005; 112:I270-I275.
130. Herzog CA, Ma JZ, Collins AJ. Comparative survival of dialysis patients in the United States after coronary angioplasty, coronary artery stenting, and coronary artery bypass surgery and impact of diabetes. Circulation 2002; 106:2207-11.
131. Reddan DN, Szczech LA, Tuttle RH, Shaw LK, Jones RH, Schwab SJ, Smith MS, Califf RM, Mark DB, Owen WF Jr. Chronic kidney disease, mortality, and treatment strategies among patients with clinically significant coronary artery disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2003; 14:2373-80.
132. Szczech LA, Reddan DN, Owen WF, Califf R, Racz M, Jones RH, Hannan EL. Differential survival after coronary revascularization procedures among patients with renal insufficiency. Kidney Int 2001; 60:292-9.
133. Aoki J, Ong AT, Hoye A, van Herwerden LA, Sousa JE, Jatene A, Bonnier JJ, Schonberger JP, Buller N, Bonser R, Lindeboom W, Unger F, Serruys PW. Five year clinical effect of coronary stenting and coronary artery bypass grafting in renal insufficient patients with multivessel coronary artery disease: Insights from ARTS trial. Eur Heart J 2005; 26:1488-93.
134. Manske CL, Wang Y, Rector T, Wilson RF, White CW. Coronary revascularisation in insulin-dependent diabetic patients with chronic renal failure. Lancet 1992; 340:998-1002.