Patrons of the revolution: Ideals and institutions in postwar behavioral science

ISIS

Volumn 97, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 420-446

  Crowther Heyck, Hunter ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE; ECONOMICS; FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT; HEALTH CARE ORGANIZATION; HISTORY; HUMAN; INTERDISCIPLINARY COMMUNICATION; PERSONNEL; UNITED STATES; WAR;

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES; FINANCING, GOVERNMENT; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; INTERDISCIPLINARY COMMUNICATION; RESEARCH PERSONNEL; RESEARCH SUPPORT; RESEARCH SUPPORT AS TOPIC; SOCIETIES, SCIENTIFIC; UNITED STATES; WAR;

EID: 33750206787     PISSN: 00211753     EISSN: 15456994     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/508075     Document Type: Article

References (228)

1. Talcott Parsons to Paul Buck, 11 Oct. 1945, Paul Buck Papers, Harvard University Archives, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
2. George Katona, quoted in Social Science Research Council, Minutes of Meeting of Committee on Business Enterprise Research, 19-20 Feb. 1954, Social Science Research Council Papers (hereafter cited as SSRC Papers). Rockefeller Archives Center, Tarrytown, New York;
3. and Herbert A. Simon, "Some Strategic Considerations in the Construction of Social Science Models" (1951), p. 2, Herbert Simon Papers (hereafter cited as Simon Papers), Carnegie-Mellon University Archives, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
4. Similar sentiments are expressed throughout Katona, Simon, and the University of Michigan ISR, 1979 Founder's Symposium, Institute for Social Research (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Institute for Social Research, 1980).
5. See also Harold Guetzkow, ed., Groups, Leadership, and Men: Research in Human Relations (Pittsburgh, Pa.: Carnegie, 1951).
6. On the creation of social science research institutes see National Academy of Sciences, Behavioral and Social Science Survey Committee, The Behavioral and Social Sciences: Outlook and Needs (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1969).
7. On the new intellectual programs see Hunter Crowther-Heyck, Herbert A. Simon: The Bounds of Reason in Modern America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2005) (hereafter cited as Crowther-Heyck, Herbert A. Simon);
8. and Theodore Porter and Dorothy Ross, eds., The Modern Social Sciences (Cambridge History of Science, 7) (Cambridge/New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003).
9. On the ISR see James S. House et al., eds., A Telescope on Society: Survey Research and Social Science at the University of Michigan and Beyond (Ann Arbor: Univ. Michigan Press, 2004);
10. Anne Frantilla, "Social Science in the Public Interest: A Fiftieth-Year History of the Institute for Social Research" (Ann Arbor: Bentley Historical Library, Univ. Michigan-Ann Arbor, 1998);
11. and Sarah Igo, "America Surveyed: The Making of a Social Scientific Plublic, 1920-1980" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton Univ., 2001).
12. In this essay I will use the term "patronage" quite generally to refer to the provision of support for research: material, financial, and social. I use this word because there was and is more to providing support for a researcher or a field than writing checks (hence, "funding" seems too narrow); but I do not mean to imply that the relationships between patrons and their clients in twentieth-century America were of the same sort as those between aristocratic patrons and their clients in early modern Europe.
13. For an excellent example see Jeffrey C. Alexander, Twenty Lectures: Sociological Theory since World War II (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1987).
14. Porter and Ross, eds., Modern Social Sciences (cit. n. 3). Most of these references are to the same five pages. This is a superb volume; thus, the relative inattention to patronage in the postwar period is all the more telling an indicator of the state of the field.
15. John Gunnell, The Descent of Political Theory: The Genealogy of an American Vocation (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1993);
16. James Farr and Raymond Seidelman, eds., Discipline and History: Political Science in the United States (Ann Arbor: Univ. Michigan Press, 1993);
17. Seidelman, Disenchanted Realists: Political Science and the American Crisis, 1884-1984 (Albany: State Univ. New York Press, 1985);
18. Alvin W. Gouldner, The Coming Crisis of Western Sociology (New York: Basic, 1970);
19. Michael Bernstein, A Perilous Progress: Economists and Public Purpose in Twentieth-Century America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press, 2001);
20. Robert M. Collins, More: The Politics of Economic Growth in Postwar America (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2000);
21. Dorothy Ross, "Changing Contours of the Social Science Disciplines," in Modern Social Sciences, ed. Porter and Ross, pp. 205-237;
22. Philip Mirowski, Machine Dreams: Economics Becomes a Cyborg Science (Cambridge/New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2002);
23. Ellen Herman, The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in the Age of Experts (Berkeley: Univ. California Press, 1995);
24. Katherine Pandora, Rebels within the Ranks: Psychologists' Critique of Scientific Authority and Democratic Realities in New Deal America (Cambridge/New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1997);
25. Micaela Di Leonardo, Exotics at Home: Anthropologies, Others, American Modernity (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1998);
26. Edward A. Purcell, Jr., The Crisis of Democratic Theory: Scientific Naturalism and the Problem of Value (Lexington: Univ. Press Kentucky, 1973);
27. Robert N. Proctor, Value-Free Science? Purity and Power in Modern Knowledge (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1991);
28. Howard Brick, Daniel Bell and the Decline of Intellectual Radicalism: Social Theory and Political Reconciliation (Madison: Univ. Wisconsin Press, 1986);
29. Richard Harvey Brown, Social Science as Civic Discourse: Essays on the Invention, Legitimation, and Uses of Social Theory (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1989);
30. Seymour Bernard Sarason, Psychology Misdirected (New York: Free Press, 1981);
31. Christopher Simpson, The Science of Coercion: Communications Research and Psychological Warfare, 1945-1960 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1994);
32. and Simpson, ed., Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences during the Cold War (New York: Free Press, 1998).
33. Mary Furner and Barry Supple, eds., The State and Economic Knowledge: The American and British Experience (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars; Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1990);
34. Michael Lacey and Furner, eds., The State and Social Investigation in Britain and the United States (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars; Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993);
35. Peter Wagner, Bjöm Wittrock, and Richard Whitley, Discourses on Society: The Shaping of the Social Science Disciplines (Sociology of the Sciences, 15) (Dordrecht/Boston: Kluwer, 1991);
36. and Porter and Ross, eds., Modern Social Sciences.
37. Jill Morawski, ed., The Rise of Experimentation in American Psychology (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 1988);
38. Morawski, "Organizing Knowledge and Behavior at Yale's Institute of Human Relations," Isis, 1986, 77:219-242;
39. Barry Karl and Stanley Katz, "The American Private Philanthropic Foundation," Minerva, 1981, 19(2):236-270;
40. Karl, Charles E. Merriam and the Study of Politics (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1974);
41. Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (Cambridge/New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1991);
42. Martin Bulmer, The Chicago School of Sociology: Institutionalization, Diversity, and the Rise of Sociological Research, ed. Morris Janowitz (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1984);
43. Earlene Craver, "Patronage and the Directions of Research in Economics: The Rockefeller Foundation in Europe, 1924-38," Minerva, 1986, 24(23): 205-222;
44. Donald Fisher, Fundamental Development of the Social Sciences: Rockefeller Philanthropy and the United States Social Science Research Council (Ann Arbor: Univ. Michigan Press, 1993);
45. and Raymond Fosdick, The Story of the Rockefeller Foundation (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1989).
46. Porter and Ross, eds., Modern Social Sciences (cit. n. 3);
47. Mark Solovey, "Project Camelot and the 1960s Epistemological Revolution: Rethinking the Politics-Patronage-Social Science Nexus," Social Studies of Science, 2001, 31:171-206;
48. Solovey, "Riding Natural Scientists' Coattails onto the Endless Frontier: The SSRC and the Quest for Scientific Legitimacy," Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 2004, 40:393-422;
49. Roger Geiger, "American Foundations and Academic Social Science, 1945-1960," Minerva, 1988, 26:315-341;
50. Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities since World War II (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1993);
51. James Capshew, "Engineering Behavior: Project Pigeon, World War II, and the Conditioning of B. F. Skinner," Technology and Culture, 1993, 34:835-857;
52. Capshew, Psychologists on the March: Science, Practice, and Professional Identity in America, 1929-1969 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1999);
53. Paul Edwards, The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1996);
54. Peter L. Galison, "The Ontology of the Enemy: Norbert Wiener and the Cybernetic Vision," Critical Inquiry, 1994, 21:228-266;
55. Craufurd Goodwin, ed., Economics and National Security: A History of Their Interaction (History of Political Economy, 1991, 23[suppl.]) (Durham, N.C.: Duke Univ. Press, 1998);
56. Goodwin, "The Patrons of Economics in a Time of Transformation," in From Interwar Pluralism to Postwar Neoclassicism, ed. Mary Morgan and Malcolm Rutherford (Hist Pol. Econ., 1998, 30[suppl.]) (Durham, N.C.: Duke Univ. Press, 1998), pp. 53-81;
57. Philip Mirowski, "When Games Grow Deadly Serious: The Military Influence on the Evolution of Game Theory," Hist. Pol. Econ., 1991, 23(suppl.):227-255;
58. and Peter Buck, "Adjusting to Military Life: The Social Sciences Go to War, 1941-50," in Military Enterprise and Technological Change: Perspectives on the American Experience, ed. Merritt Roe Smith (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1985), pp. 203-252.
59. Galison, "Ontology of the Enemy"; Andy Pickering, "Cyborg History and the World War II Regime," Perspectives on Science, 1995, 3:1-48;
60. E. Roy Weintraub, ed., Toward a History of Game Theory (Hist. Pol. Econ., 1992, 24[suppl.]) (Durham, N.C.: Duke Univ. Press, 1992);
61. Erik Rau, "Combat Scientists: The Emergence of Operations Research in the United States during World War II" (Ph.D. diss., Univ. Pennsylvania, 1999);
62. M. Fortun and Silvan Schweber, "Scientists and the Legacy of World War II: The Case of Operations Research (OR)," Soc. Stud. Sci., 1993, 23:595-642;
63. Geoffrey Bowker, "How to Be Universal: Some Cybernetic Strategies, 1943-70," ibid., pp. 107-127;
64. Andrew Abbott, The System of Professions: An Essay on the Division of Expert Labor (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1988);
65. Stuart W. Leslie, "Playing the Education Game to Win: The Military and Interdisciplinary Research at Stanford," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences, 1987, 18:55-88;
66. and Pickering, "Cybernetics and the Mangle: Ashby, Beer, and Pask," Soc. Stud. Sci., 2002, 32:413-437.
67. Samuel Klausner and Victor Lidz, eds., The Nationalization of the Social Sciences (Philadelphia: Univ. Pennsylvania Press, 1986);
68. Otto N. Larsen, Milestones and Millstones: Social Science at the National Science Foundation, 1945-1991 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1992);
69. and Solovey, "Riding Natural Scientists' Coattails onto the Endless Frontier" (cit. n. 10).
70. Similar patterns can be observed in the American Journal of Sociology, the American Economic Review, and the American Political Science Review. The changes in sociology and political science were generally somewhat slower and less complete, though they were still quite marked.
71. Paul Samuelson, Problems of the American Economy: An Economist's View (Stamp Memorial Lecture at the University of London) (London: Athlone, 1962), pp. 1-3.
72. Ross, Origins of American Social Science (cit. n. 9);
73. Robert C. Bannister, Sociology and Scientism: The American Quest for Objectivity, 1880-1940 (Chapel Hill: Univ. North Carolina Press, 1987);
74. Mary Furner, Advocacy and Objectivity: A Crisis in the Professionalization of American Social Science, 1865-1905 (Lexington: Univ. Press Kentucky for the Organization of American Historians, 1975);
75. and Theodore M. Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press, 1995).
76. Ross, "Changing Contours of the Social Science Disciplines" (cit. n. 7).
77. Crowther-Heyck, Herbert A. Simon.
78. Furner, Advocacy and Objectivity (cit. n. 15);
79. Crowther-Heyck, Herbert A. Simon;
80. and Louis Wirth, "Report on the History, Activities, and Policies of the Social Science Research Council" (1937), SSRC Papers.
81. Henry J. Aaron, Politics and the Professors: The Great Society in Perspective (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1978);
82. Frederick Mosteller and Daniel P. Moynihan, eds., On Equality of Educational Opportunity: Papers Deriving from the Harvard University Faculty Seminar on the Coleman Report (New York: Vintage, 1972);
83. Moynihan, Miles to Go: A Personal History of Social Policy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1997);
84. Igo, "America Surveyed" (cit. n. 3);
85. Donald T. Critchlow, Intended Consequences: Birth Control, Abortion, and the Federal Government in Modern America (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1999);
86. Walter Heller, New Dimensions of Political Economy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1966);
87. Bernstein, Perilous Progress (cit. n. 7);
88. Irving Louis Horowitz, ed., The Rise and Fall of Project Camelot: Studies in the Relationship between Science and Practical Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1967);
89. Solovey, "Project Camelot and the 1960s Epistemological Revolution" (cit. n. 10);
90. Herman, The Romance of American Psychology (cit. n. 7);
91. and Hunter Crowther-Heyck, "The Poor War in Modern Memory: Social Science and the War on Poverty," unpublished MS (1993).
92. Frantilla, "Social Science in the Public Interest" (cit. n. 3);
93. and House et al., eds., Telescope on Society (cit. n. 3). The main difference in the case of the ISR is that perennial large-scale survey projects and their attendant intellectual and institutional apparatus came to play the roles typically performed by disciplines elsewhere.
94. Ross, "Changing Contours of the Social Science Disciplines" (cit. n. 7).
95. Talcott Parsons, The Social System (New York: Free Press, 1951);
96. David Easton, The Political System: An Inquiry into the State of Political Science (New York: Knopf, 1953);
97. Paul Samuelson, Foundations of Economic Analysis (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1947);
98. Gouldner, Coming Crisis of Western Sociology (cit. n. 7);
99. Daniel P. Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding: Community Action in the War on Poverty (New York: Free Press, 1969);
100. and Jeffrey L. Pressman and Aaron Wildavsky, Implementation: How Great Expectations in Washington Are Dashed in Oakland; or Why It's Amazing That Federal Programs Work at All (Berkeley: Univ. California Press, 1973).
101. Ross, "Changing Contours of the Social Science Disciplines" (cit. n. 7);
102. Solovey, "Project Camelot and the 1960s Epistemological Revolution" (cit. n. 10);
103. and Solovey, "Riding Natural Scientists' Coattails onto the Endless Frontier" (cit. n. 10).
104. For a classic statement of the belief in a unified behavioral science see James Grier Miller, "Toward a General Theory for the Behavioral Sciences," American Psychologist, 1955, 10:513-531.
105. Thomas Parke Hughes, Rescuing Prometheus (New York: Pantheon, 1998);
106. and Hunter Crowther-Heyck, "George A. Miller, Language, and the Computer Metaphor of Mind," History of Psychology, 1999, 2:37-64.
107. Mario Biagioli's discussion of the role of brokers in the Medici court is surprisingly relevant to the workings of this first system. In both cases, brokers were able to advance their agendas (and themselves) by connecting patrons with clients in mutually rewarding relationships. Also, links to new sources of patronage were essential in both cases to improving the status of certain sciences and their practitioners that otherwise might have languished in the university - the mathematical mixed sciences in Galileo's case, the mathematical, behavioral sciences in the present case. The chief difference was that there was no real parallel in postwar America to the status issues connected to nobility in seventeenth-century Italy. See Mario Biagioli, Galileo, Courtier (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1993).
108. See Robert M. Thrall, Clyde Coombs, and Robert L. Davis, eds., Decision Processes (New York: Wiley, 1954);
109. Vernon L. Smith, "Game Theory and Experimental Economics: Beginnings and Early Influences," in Toward a History of Game Theory, ed. Weintraub (cit. n. 11), pp. 241-282;
110. and M. M. Flood, "Report of a Seminar on Organization Science, Rm-709" (1951), Simon Papers. Other attendees included Robert Bush, Clyde Coombs, William Estes, Leon Festinger, Clifford Hildreth, Samuel Karlin, Tjalling Koopmans, Jacob Marschak, Oskar Morgenstern, Roy Radner, and Lloyd Shapley.
111. Herbert A. Simon, Models of Man: Social and Rational: Mathematical Essays on Rational Behavior in a Social Setting (New York: Wiley, 1957), p. 1.
112. Some exemplary works that display this link between behavioralism and functionalism include Robert K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure: Toward the Codification of Theory and Research (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1949);
113. Miller, "Toward a General Theory for the Behavioral Sciences" (cit. n. 24);
114. and Simon, Models of Man.
115. Two major sources for such thinking about the importance of theory in science were L. J. Henderson and A. N. Whitehead. See Lawrence J. Henderson, "An Approximate Definition of a Fact," University of California Publications in Philosophy, 1932, 14:179-199;
116. and Alfred North Whitehead, Science and the Modern World (New York: Macmillan, 1925).
117. Henderson's notion of a conceptual scheme is a direct ancestor of Thomas Kuhn's concept of the paradigm, minus the important concept of the exemplar. According to Henderson, before the creation of a systematic conceptual scheme a body of knowledge is just a mass of mere data, not a science - just as a preparadigmatic body of knowledge is not a science for Kuhn. See Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 1962).
118. For further discussion of this topic see Crowther-Heyck, Herbert A. Simon; and Hunter Crowther-Heyck, "Talcott Parsons, Science, and Social Relations at Harvard," paper delivered to the Johns Hopkins University Colloquium, May 1997.
119. Simon, "Some Strategic Considerations in the Construction of Social Science Models" (cit. n. 2), p. 2.
120. See also W. W. Cooper, David Rosenblatt, and Herbert Simon, "Memorandum: Research Program of the School: Project on Intra-Firm Planning" (1950);
121. Herbert A. Simon to Bernard Berelson, 10 Dec. 1951;
122. and Bernard Berelson, "The Ford Foundation Behavioral Sciences Program: Proposed Plan for the Development of the Behavioral Sciences Program - Confidential and Preliminary Draft" (1951): Simon Papers.
123. Crowther-Heyck, Herbert A. Simon.
124. Congressional Research Service, "Research Policies for the Social and Behavioral Sciences: Science Policy Study Background Report No. 6" (Washington, D.C.: Task Force on Science Policy, Committee on Science and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, 1986).
125. Klausner and Lidz, eds., Nationalization of the Social Sciences (cit. n. 12);
126. Larsen, Milestones and Millstones (cit. n. 12);
127. President's Science Advisory Committee, Behavioral Science Subpanel of the Life Science Panel, Strengthening the Behavioral Sciences and Improving Their Use (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1962);
128. Henry Riecken, "Underdogging: The Early Career of the Social Sciences in the NSF," in Nationalization of the Social Sciences, ed. Klausner and Lidz, pp. 209-226;
129. Congressional Research Service, "Research Policies for the Social and Behavioral Sciences";
130. and National Institute of Mental Health (U.S.), Division of Extramural Research Programs, Program Analysis and Evaluation Section, Behavioral Sciences and Mental Health: An Anthology of Program Reports (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1970).
131. This assertion is based on my survey of articles from Psychological Review, the American Sociological Review, and the American Political Science Review, 1945-1975.
132. On Alpert's and Riecken's project choices see Larsen, Milestones and Millstones;
133. and Riecken, "Underdogging."
134. On the Estes and Burke study see John T. Wilson, "Psychology and the National Science Foundation," Amer Psychol., 1952, 7:497-502, on p. 500.
135. Project Camelot was a controversial project, funded by the U.S. Army in the mid 1960s, that would have studied the social dynamics of revolutionary movements in the Third World. It attracted an enormous amount of unwelcome publicity in 1964-1965, serving as an exemplar to many social scientists of the dangers of military patronage. It was canceled while still in the planning stages. On Project Camelot see Solovey, "Project Camelot and the 1960s Epistemological Revolution" (cit. n. 10);
136. and Horowitz, ed., Rise and Fall ofProject Camelot (cit. n. 19).
137. The Mansfield Amendment, which went into effect in 1970, prohibited military funding for any research that did not have a direct relationship to a specific military function. Named for Senator Mike Mansfield (better known as the sponsor of the 1964 Civil Rights Act), the amendment marked a new era of Congressional scrutiny of military research. On Ford's shift to "area studies" see Geiger, "American Foundations and Academic Social Science, 1945-1960" (cit. n. 10);
138. and Francis X. Sutton, "The Ford Foundation: The Early Years," Daedalus, 1987, 116(1):41-91.
139. On the changing influence of the ONR see Harvey Sapolsky, Science and the Navy: The History of the Office of Naval Research (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press, 1990);
140. and Capshew, Psychologists on the March (cit. n. 10).
141. For changes in military funding for social science see Solovey, "Project Camelot and the 1960s Epistemological Revolution";
142. Horowitz, ed., Rise and Fall of Project Camelot;
143. and Stuart W. Leslie, The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1993).
144. Robert H. Haveman, ed., Poverty Policy and Poverty Research: The Great Society and the Social Sciences (Madison: Univ. Wisconsin Press, 1987);
145. Aaron, Politics and the Professors (cit. n. 19);
146. Michael B. Katz, The Undeserving Poor: From the War on Poverty to the War on Welfare (New York: Pantheon, 1989);
147. Alice O'Connor, Poverty Knowledge: Social Science, Social Policy, and the Poor in Twentieth-Century U.S. History (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press, 2001);
148. Harold Silver and Pamela Silver, An Educational War on Poverty: American and British Policy-Making, 1960-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1991);
149. and Crowther-Heyck, "Poor War in Modern Memory" (cit. n. 19).
150. Institute for Social Research, "Development of the Scientific Capabilities of the Institute for Social Research: An Application for Support to the Division of Institutional Development, National Science Foundation" (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1970).
151. Parsons, Social System (cit. n. 22);
152. Easton, Political System (cit. n. 22);
153. Karl Wolfgang Deutsch, Nationalism and Social Communication: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Nationality (Cambridge, Mass.: Technology Press of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology/Wiley, 1953);
154. Steve J. Heims, The Cybernetics Group (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1991);
155. and Crowther-Heyck, Herbert A. Simon.
156. Sonja Amadae, Rationalizing Capitalist Democracy: The Cold War Origins of Rational Choice Liberalism (Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press, 2003);
157. and Crowther-Heyck, Herbert A. Simon.
158. The point here is not that scholars no longer study the role of communication in integrating communities. They do. Rather, the point is that such studies of the social role of communication now are one subset of a larger set of approaches to communication, many of which do not study it in terms of its role in a social system. Take, e.g., the recent fascination with the idea of "memes: atomistic thought units that, in theory, compete and evolve according to the laws of Darwinian evolution. See Simpson, Science of Coercion (cit. n. 7);
159. Stephen W. Littlejohn and Karen A. Foss, Theories of Human Communication, 8th ed. (Belmont, Calif. Wadsworth, 2005);
160. and Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1990).
161. Donald Worster has argued for a contemporaneous transformation in ecological thought from seeing ecosystems as systems to seeing them as statistical aggregates: Donald Worster, Nature's Economy, 2nd ed. (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1994).
162. Ben Orlove, "From Culture to Knowledge: Climate, Sustainable Development, and 'Traditional Environmental Knowledge,"' paper presented at the University of Oklahoma, Norman, 15 Feb. 2006.
163. Geiger, "American Foundations and Academic Social Science, 1945-1960" (cit. n. 10);
164. Sutton, "Ford Foundation" (cit. n. 36);
165. Robert Gleeson, "The Crisis of the New Look: Carnegie Tech's GSIA, 1955-1963," unpublished MS (1997);
166. Gleeson, "The Rise of Graduate Management Education in American Universities, 1908-1970: (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie-Mellon Univ., 1997);
167. and Gleeson and Steven Schlossman, "George Leland Bach and the Rebirth of Graduate Management Education in the United States, 1945-1975," Selections, 1995, 11(3):8-36.
168. Sutton, "Ford Foundation."
169. David Hounshell, "The Cold War, Rand, and the Generation of Knowledge, 1946-1962," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences, 1997, 27:237-267;
170. and David Jardini, "Out of the Blue Yonder: The Rand Corporation's Diversification into Social Welfare Research, 1946-1968" (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie-Mellon Univ., 1996).
171. Ford Foundation, "Report of the Study for the Ford Foundation on Policy and Program" (Detroit, Mich.: Ford Foundation, 1949), pp. 14-15.
172. Berelson, "Ford Foundation Behavioral Sciences Program" (cit. n. 31), pp. 4-6, 8;
173. and Bernard Berelson, "The Ford Foundation Behavioral Sciences Division Report, June 1953" (1953), pp. 12-13, Simon Papers.
174. On the coining of the term "behavioral science" see Miller, "Toward a General Theory for the Behavioral Sciences" (cit. n. 24).
175. Berelson, "Ford Foundation Behavioral Sciences Program," pp. 3-4.
176. Ibid., pp. 8, 9, 30.
177. Berelson, "Ford Foundation Behavioral Sciences Division Report, June 1953" (cit. n. 47).
178. Berelson, "Ford Foundation Behavioral Sciences Program" (cit. n. 31), pp. 32, 34.
179. On the CASBS see Arnold Thackray, "Notes toward a History," Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioural Science Annual Report (1984), pp. 59-71;
180. and Thackray, "A Site for CASBS: East of West?" Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences Annual Report (1987), pp. 63-72.
181. "Summer Research Training Institutes: A Nes Council Program," SSRC Items, 1954;
182. and Crowther-Heyck, Herberth A. Simon.
183. National Institute of Mental Health (U.S.), Division of Extramural Research Program Analysis and E valuation Section, Behavioral and Mental Health: An Anthology of Program Reports (cit. n. 34), p. 3.
184. Ellen Herman, "The Career of Cold War Psychology," Radical History Review, 1995, 63:52-85;
185. Herman, Romance of American Psychology (cit. n. 7);
186. and Capshew, Psychologists on the March (cit. n. 10).
187. John M. Jordan, Machine-Age Ideology: Social Engineering and American Liberalism, 1911-1939 (Chapel Hill: Univ. North Carolina Press, 1994);
188. and Herbert A. Simon, "Application for Research Grant to NIH" (1962), Simon Papers.
189. On the history, logic, and politics of clinical trials see Harry Marks, The Progress of Experiment: Science and Therapeutic Reform in the United States, 1900-1990 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1997).
190. National Institute of Mental Health (U.S.), Division of Extramural Research Programs, Program Analysis Section, "Mental Health Research Grant Awards, Fiscal Years 1948-63" (Washington, D.C., 1964).
191. Gerald N. Grob, From Asylum to Community: Mental Health Policy in Modern America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press, 1991), pp. 60-67.
192. Robert Felix, "Mental Disorders as Public Health Problems," American Journal of Psychiatry, 1949, 106:401-406;
193. and Stephen J. Cross, "Designs for Living: Lawrence K. Frank and the Progressive Legacy in American Social Science" (Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins Univ., 1994).
194. National Institute of Mental Health (U.S.), Division of Extramural Research Programs, Program Analysis and Evaluation Section, "Training Grant Program Evaluation" (Washington, D.C., 1958).
195. On the expansion of the training program see ibid., p. 15.
196. For the NAMHC endorsement see National Institute of Mental Health (U.S.), Division of Extramural Research Programs, Program Analysis and Evaluation Section, Behavioral Sciences and Mental Health: An Anthology of Program Reports (cit. n. 34).
197. For the statistics on principal investigators see Grob, From Asylum to Community (cit. n. 57), p. 67.
198. Simon to Stanley Yolles, Director of NIMH, 30 Sept. 1968, Simon Papers;
199. Victoria Harden, Inventing the NIH: Federal Biomedical Research Policy, 1887-1937 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1986);
200. Allen Newell, "Notes on Preliminary Discussion of Funding of the Systems and Communication Sciences" (1962), Simon Papers;
201. and Stephen P. Strickland, The Story of the NIH Grants Programs (Lanham, Md.: Univ. Press America, 1988).
202. Strickland, Story of the NIH Grants Programs;
203. Jeffrey Stine, "A History of Science Policy, in the United States, 1940-1985: Science Policy Study Background Report No. 1" (Washington, D.C.: Task Force on Science Policy, Committee on Science and Technology, House of Representatives, 1986);
204. and Daryl E. Chubin and Edward J. Hackett, Peerless Science: Peer Review and U.S. Science Policy (Albany: State Univ. New York Press, 1990).
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