Causes of death among crack cocaine users

Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria

Volumn 28, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 196-202

  Ribeiro, Marcelo ^a   Dunn, John ^b   Sesso, Ricardo ^a   Dias, Andréa Costa ^a   Laranjeira, Ronaldo ^a  

^a FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF SÃO PAULO   (Brazil)

^b CAMDEN AND ISLINGTON NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cause of death; Crack cocaine; Longitudinal studies; Mortality rate; Substance related disorders

Indexed keywords

COCAINE;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; ARTICLE; BRAZIL; CAUSE OF DEATH; COCAINE DEPENDENCE; CONTROLLED STUDY; DEMOGRAPHY; DRUG DETOXIFICATION; DRUG OVERDOSE; DRUG USE; FEMALE; FOLLOW UP; HOMICIDE; HOSPITAL ADMISSION; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; INTERVIEW; INTRAVENOUS DRUG ABUSE; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; MORTALITY; SCHOOL CHILD;

EID: 33749375215     PISSN: 15164446     EISSN: 15164446     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1590/S1516-44462006000300010     Document Type: Article

References (91)

1. McGinnis JM, Foege WH. Actual causes of death in the United States. JAMA. 1993;270(18):2207-12.
2. [No authors listed] Observatório Europeu da Droga e da Toxicodependência (OEDT). A evolução do fenômeno da droga na União Européia e na Noruega. Luxemburgo: European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drugs Addiction (EMCDDA); 2004.
3. UNODC - United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. World Drug Report 2005. Geneve: UNO; 2005.
4. Ghodse H, Oyefeso A, Kilpatrick B. Mortality of drug addictics in the United Kingdom 1967-1993. Int J Epidemiol. 1998;27(3):473-8.
5. Oyefeso A, Ghodse H, Clancy C, Corkery J, Goldfinch R. Drug abuse-related mortality: a study of teenage addicts over a 20-year period. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 1999;34(8):437-41.
6. Smith T. The changing pattern of mortality in young adults aged 15 to 34 in Scotland between 1972 and 1992. Scott Med J. 1994;39(5):144-5.
7. Prinzleve M, Haasen C, Zurhold H, Matali JL, Bruguera E, Gerevich J, Bacskai E, Ryder N, Butler S, Manning V, Gossop M, Pezous AM, Verster A, Camposeragna A, Andersson P, Olsson B, Primorac A, Fischer G, Guttinger F, Rehm J, Krausz M. Cocaine use in Europe - a multi-centre study: patterns of use in different groups. Eur Addict Res. 2004;10(4):147-55.
8. Carlini EA, Galduroz JC, Noto AR, Nappo SA. I levantamento domiciliar sobre o uso de drogas psicotrópicas no Brasil. São Paulo: Universidade Federal de São Paulo (CEBRID / SENAD); 2002.
9. Galduroz JC, Noto AR, Fonseca AM, Carlini EA. V Levantamento nacional sobre o consumo de drogas entre estudantes do ensino fundamental e médio da rede pública de ensino nas 27 capitais brasileiras - 2004. São Paulo: Universidade Federal de São Paulo (CEBRID / SENAD); 2005.
10. Dunn J, Laranjeira RR, Silveira DX, Formigoni MLOS, Ferri CP. Crack cocaine: an increase in use among patients attending clinics in São Paulo: 1990-1993. Subst Use Misuse. 1996;31(4):519-27.
11. Ferri CP. Cocaína: padrões de consumo e fatores associados à procura de tratamento [tese]. São Paulo: Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Escola Paulista de Medicina; 1999.
12. Nappo SA, Galduroz JC, Raymundo M, Carlini EA. Changes in cocaine use as viewed by key informants: a qualitative study carried out in 1994 and 1999 in São Paulo, Brazil. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2001;33(3):241-53.
13. Dunn J, Laranjeira RR. Transitions in the route of cocaine administration - characteristics, direction and associated variables. Addiction. 1999;94(6):813-24.
14. Dunn J, Laranjeira R. Cocaine - profiles, drug histories, and patterns of use of patients from Brazil. Substance Use Misuse. 1999;34(11):1527-48.
15. Noto AR, Galduroz JC, Nappo AS, Fonseca AM, Carlini CM, Moura YG, Carlini EA. Levantamento nacional sobre uso de drogas entre crianças e adolescentes em situação de rua nas 27 capitais brasileiras - 2003. São Paulo: Universidade Federal de Sao Paulo (CEBRID / SENAD); 2004.
16. Hatsukami DK, Fischman MW. Crack cocaine and cocaine hydrochloride. Are the differences myth or reality? JAMA. 1996;276(19):1580-8.
17. Nappo SA, Sanchez ZM, Oliveira LG, Santos SA, Coradete-Junior J, Pacca JC, Lacks V Comportamento de risco de mulheres usuárias de crack em relação à DST/AIDS. São Paulo: Universidade Federal de São Paulo (CEBRID - UNIFESP); 2004.
18. Gossop M, Stewart D, Treacy S, Marsden J. A prospective study of mortality among drug misusers during a 4-year period after seeking treatment. Addiction. 2002;97(1):39-47.
19. Siegal HA, Li L, Rapp RC. Abstinence trajectories among treated crack cocaine users. Addict Behav. 2002;27(3):437-49.
20. Simpson DD, Joe GW, Broome KM. A national 5-year follow-up of treatment outcomes for cocaine dependence. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002;59(6):538-44.
21. McKay JR, Foltz C, Stephens RC, Leahy PJ, Crowley EM, Kissin W. Predictors of alcohol and crack cocaine use outcomes over a 3-year follow-up in treatment seekers. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2005;28(Suppl 1):S73-82.
22. Laranjeira R, Dunn J, Rassi R, Fernandes M, Mitsushiro S. Crack cocaine - a two-year follow-up study of treated patients. J Addict Dis. 2001;20(1):43-8.
23. Ribeiro M, Dunn J, Laranjeira R, Sesso R. High mortality among young crack cocaine users in Brazil: a 5-year follow-up study. Addiction. 2004;99(9):1133-5.
24. Akerman M, Campanario P, Maia PB. Saúde e meio ambiente: análise de diferenciais intra-urbanos, Município de São Paulo, Brasil. Rev Saude de Publica. 1996;30(4):372-82.
25. Fundação SEADE. Taxa de mortalidade para o município de São Paulo. [citado em 21 out 2005]. [Disponível em URL: http://www.seade.gov.br].
26. Mesquita F, Kral A, Reingold A, Haddad I, Sanches M, Turienzo G, Piconez D, Araujo P, Bueno R. Overdoses among cocaine users in Brazil. Addiction. 2001;96(12):1809-13.
27. Sanchez J, Rodriguez B, de la Fuente L, Barrio G, Vicente J, Roca J, Royuela L. Opiates or cocaine: mortality from acute reactions in six major Spanish cities. State Information System on Drug Abuse (SEIT) Working Group. J Epidemiol Community Health. 1995;49(1):54-60.
28. Torralba L, Brugal MT, Villalbi JR, Tortosa MT, Toribio A, Valverde JL. Mortality due to acute adverse drug reactions: opiates and cocaine in Barcelona, 1989-93. Addiction. 1996;91(3):419-26.
29. Office of National Statistics, United Kingdom (ONS). Deaths related to drug poisoning: results for England and Wales, 1993 to 2000. Health Stat Q. 2002;13:76-82.
30. Degenhardt L, Roxburgh A, Barker B. Underlying causes of cocaine, amphetamine and opioid related deaths in Australia. J Clin Forensic Med. 2005;12(4):187-95.
31. Darke S, Kaye S, Duflou J. Cocaine-related fatalities in New South Wales, Australia 1993-2002. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2005;77(2):107-14.
32. Karch SB, Stephens B, Ho CH. Relating cocaine blood concentrations to toxicity - an autopsy study of 99 cases. J Forensic Sci. 1998;43(1):41-5.
33. Coffin PO, Galea S, Ahern J, Leon AC, Vlahov D, Tardiff K. Opiates, cocaine and alcohol combinations in accidental drug overdose deaths in New York City, 1990-98. Addiction. 2003;98(6):739-47.
34. O'Driscoll PT, McGough J, Hagan H, Thiede H, Critchlow C, Alexander ER. Predictors of accidental fatal drug overdose among a cohort of injection drug users. Am J Public Health. 2001;91(6):984-7.
35. Frischer M, Goldberg D, Rahman M, Berney L. Mortality and survival among a cohort of drug injectors in Glasgow, 1982-1994. Addiction. 1997;92(4):419-27.
36. Booth RE, Watters JK, Chitwood DD. HIV risk-related sex behaviors among injection drug users, crack smokers, and injection drug users who smoke crack. Am J Public Health. 1993;83(8):1144-8.
37. Maranda MJ, Han C, Rainone GA. Crack cocaine and sex. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2004;36(3):315-22.
38. Budd RD. Cocaine abuse and violent death. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 1989;15(4):375-82.
39. Marzuk PM, Tardiff K, Leon AC, Hirsch CS, Stajic M, Portera L, Hartwell N, Iqbal MI. Fatal injuries after cocaine use as a leading cause of death among young adults in New York City. N Engl J Med. 1995;332(26):1753-7.
40. Hser YI, Hoffman V, Grella CE, Anglin MD. A 33-year follow-up of narcotics addicts. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58(5):503-8.
41. Wille R. Ten-year follow-up of a representative sample of London heroin addicts: clinic attendance, abstinence and mortality. Br J Addict. 1981;76(3):259-66.
42. Oppenheimer E, Tobutt C, Taylor C, Andrew T. Death and survival in a cohort of heroin addicts from London clinics: a 22-year follow-up study. Addiction. 1994;89(10):1299-308.
43. Goldstein A, Herrera J. Heroin addicts and methadone treatment in Albuquerque: a 22-year follow-up. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1995;40(2):139-50.
44. Bargagli AM, Sperati A, Davoli M, Forastiere F, Perucci CA. Mortality among problem drug users in Rome: an 18-year follow-up study, 1980-97. Addiction. 2001;96(10):1455-63.
45. Fugelstad A, Annell A, Rajs J, Agren G. Mortality and causes and manner of death among drug addicts in Stockholm during the period 1981-1992. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1997;96(3):169-75.
46. Sánchez-Carbonell X, Seus L. Ten-year survival analysis of a cohort of heroin addicts in Catalonia: the EMETYST project. Addiction. 2000;95(6):941-8.
47. Chen CC, Kuo CJ, Tsai SY. Causes of death of patients with substance dependence: a record-linkage study in a psychiatric hospital in Taiwan. Addiction. 2001;96(5):729-36.
48. Quaglio G, Talamini G, Lechi A, Venturini L, Lugoboni F, Mezzelani P; Gruppo Intersert di Collaborazione Scientifica (GICS). Study of 2708 heroin-related deaths in north-eastern Italy 1985-98 to establish the main causes of death. Addiction. 2001;96(8):1127-37.
49. Zanis DA, Woody GE. One-year mortality rates following methadone treatment discharge. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998;52(3):257-60.
50. Roy E, Haley N, Leclerc P, Sochanski B, Boudreau JF, Boivin JF. Mortality in a cohort of street youth in Montreal. JAMA. 2004;292(5):569-74.
51. Hickman M, Carnwath Z, Madden P, Farrell M, Rooney C, Ashcroft R, Judd A, Stimson G. Drug-related mortality and fatal overdose risk: pilot cohort study of heroin users recruited from specialist drug treatment sites in London. J Urban Health. 2003;80(2):274-87.
52. Engstrom A, Adamsson C, Allebeck P, Rydberg U. Mortality in patients with substance abuse: a follow-up in Stockholm County, 1973-1984. Int J Addict. 1991;26(1):91-106.
53. Wahren CA, Allebeck P, Rajs J. Unnatural causes of death among drug addicts in Stockholm: an analysis of health care and autopsy records. Subst Use Misuse. 1997;32(14):2163-83.
54. Eskild A, Magnus P, Samuelsen SO, Sohlberg C, Kittelsen P. Differences in mortality rates and causes of death between HIV positive and HIV negative intravenous drug users. Int J Epidemiol. 1993;22(2):315-20.
55. Bartu A, Freeman NC, Gawthorne GS, Codde JP, Holman CD. Mortality in a cohort of opiate and amphetamine users in Perth, Western Australia. Addiction. 2004;99(1):53-60.
56. Poser W, Poser S, Eva-Condemarin P. Mortality in patients with dependence on prescription drugs. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1992;30(1):49-57.
57. Piesiur-Strehlow B, Strehlow U, Poser W. Mortality of patients dependent on benzodiazepines. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1986;73(3):330-5.
58. World Health Organization (WHO). Youth violence. In: WHO. World report on violence and health. Geneve: WHO; 2002. p. 25-56.
59. Parker RN, Auerhahn K. Alcohol, drugs, and violence. Annu Rev Sociol. 1998;24:291-311.
60. MacDonald JM, Gover AR. Concentrated disadvantage and youth-on-youth homicide: assessing the structural covariates over time. Homicide Studies. 2005;9(1):30-54.
61. Blumstein A, Rivara FP, Rosenfeld R. The rise and decline of homicide - and why. Annu Rev Public Health. 2000;21:505-41.
62. Krug EG, Powell KE, Dahlberg LL. Firearm-related deaths in the United States and 35 other high- and upper-middle-income countries. Int J Epidemiol. 1998;27(2):214-21.
63. Reinarman C, Levine HG. The crack attack: politics and media in the crack scare. In: Reinarman C, Levine HG, eds. Crack in America - demon drugs and social justice. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press; 1997. p. 18-52.
64. Goldstein PJ. The relationship between drugs and violence in the United States of America. In: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODOC). World Drug Report 1997. Geneve: UNO; 1997.
65. Goldstein PJ, Brownstein HH, Ryan PJ, Belluci PA. Crack and homicide in New York City: a case study in the epidemiology of violence. Reinarman C, Levine HG (editors). Crack in America - demon drugs and social justice. Berkeley: University of California Press; 1997. p. 113-30.
66. Varano SP, Cancino JM. An empirical analysis of deviant homicides in Chicago. Homicide Studies. 2001 5(1):5-29.
67. Bowling B. The rise and fall of New York murder - zero tolerance or crack's decline? Brit J Criminol. 1999;39(4) 531-54.
68. Jorge MH, Gawryszewski VP, Latorre MR. I - Análise dos dados de mortalidade. Rev Saude Publica. 1997;31(Supl 5):5-25.
69. Souza ER. Homicídios no Brasil: o grande vilão da saúde pública na década de 80. Cad Saude Publica. 1994;10(Supl 1):45-60.
70. Gawryszewski VP, Koizumi MS, Mello-Jorge MH. As causas externas no Brasil no ano 2000: comparando a mortalidade e a morbidade. Cad Saude Publica. 2004;20(4):995-1003.
71. Freitas ED, Paim JS, Silva LM, Costa MC. Evolução e distribuição espacial da mortalidade por causas externas em Salvador. Cad Saude Publica. 2000;16(4):1059-70.
72. Lima MC, Souza ER, Ximenes R, Albuquerque MF, Bitoun J, Barros MD. Evolução de homicídios por área geográfica em Pernambuco entre 1980 e 1998. Rev Saude Publica. 2002;36(4):462-9.
73. Barata RB, Ribeiro MCSA, Moraes JC. Tendência temporal da mortalidade por homicídios na cidade de São Paulo, Brasil, 1979-1994. Cad Saude Publica. 1999;15(4):711-8.
74. Gawryszewski VP, Mello-Jorge MH. Mortalidade violenta no Município de São Paulo nos últimos 40 anos. Rev Bras Epidemiol. 2000;3(1-3):50-69.
75. Cordeiro R, Donalisio MRC. Homicídios masculinos na Região Metropolitana de São Paulo entre 1979 e 1998: uma abordagem pictórica. Cad Saude Publica. 2001;17(3):669-77.
76. Vermelho LL, Mello-Jorge MH. Mortalidade de jovens: análise do período de 1930 a 1991 (a transição epidemiológica para a violência). Rev Saude Publica. 1996;30(4):319-31.
77. Souza ER, Assis SG, Silva CM. Violência no Município do Rio de Janeiro: áreas de risco e tendência da mortalidade entre adolescentes de 10-19 anos. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 1997;1(5):389-98.
78. Lima ML, Ximenes R. Violência e morte: diferenciais da mortalidade por causas externas no espaço urbano do Recife, 1991. Cad Saude Publica 1998;14(4):829-40.
79. Barata RB, Ribeiro MC, Moraes JC. Desigualdades sociais e homicídios em adolescentes e adultos jovens na cidade de São Paulo em 1995. Rev Bras Epidemiol. 1999;2(1-2):50-9.
80. Santos SM, Barcellos C, Carvalho MS, Flores R. Detecção de aglomerados espaciais de óbitos por causas violentas em Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil, 1996. Cad Saude Publica. 2001;17(5):1141-51.
81. Drumond Jr M, Barros MB. Desigualdades socioespaciais na mortalidade do adulto no Município de São Paulo. Rev Bras Epidemiol. 1999;2(1-2):34-49.
82. Barata RB, Ribeiro MC. Relação entre homicídios e indicadores econômicos em São Paulo, Brasil, 1996. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2000;7(2):118-24.
83. Macedo AC, Paim JS, Silva LM, Costa Md Mda C. Violência e desigualdade social: mortalidade por homicídios e condições de vida em Salvador, Brasil. Rev Saude Publica. 2001;35(6):515-22.
84. Gawryszewski VP, Costa LS. Social inequality and homicide rates in São Paulo City, Brazil. Rev Saude Publica. 2005;39(2):191-7.
85. Dunn J, Ferri CP, Laranjeira R. Does multisite sampling improve the patient heterogeneity in drug misuse research? Drug Alcohol Depend. 2001;63(1):79-85.
86. Szwarcwald CL, Castilho EA. Mortalidade por armas de fogo no estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil: uma análise espacial. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 1998;4(3):161-70.
87. Peres MF, Santos PC. Mortalidade por homicídios no Brasil na década de 90: o papel das armas de fogo. Rev Saude Publica. 2005;39(1):58-66.
88. Beato-Filho CC, Assuncao RM, Silva BF, Marinho FC, Reis IA, Almeida MC. Conglomerados de homicídios e o trafico de drogas em Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, de 1995 a 1999. Cad Saude Publica. 2001;17(5):1163-71.
89. Minayo MC, Deslandes SF. A complexidade das relações entre drogas, álcool e violência. Cad Saude Publica. 1998;14(1):35-42.
90. Baptista M, Minayo MCS, Aquino MTC, Assis SG. Global studies of illegal drug markets in Rio de Janeiro. Rio de Janeiro: NEPAD/UERJ - CLAVES/FIOCRUZ; 2000.
91. Sant'Anna AR, Lopes MJ. Homicides among teenagers in the city of Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil: vulnerability, susceptibility and gender cultures. Cad Saude Publica. 2002;18(6):1509-17.