Prevention of anti-inflammatory drug-induced gastrointestinal damage: Benefits and risks of therapeutic strategies

Annals of Medicine

Volumn 38, Issue 6, 2006, Pages 415-428

  Lanas, Angel ^a   Hunt, Richard ^b  

^a HOSPITAL CLÍNICO UNIVERSITARIO LOZANO BLESA   (Spain)

^b MCMASTER UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTRE   (Canada)

Author keywords

Aspirin; COX 2 selective inhibitors; Gastrointestinal bleeding; Misoprostol; Myocardial infarction; Non steroidal anti inflammatory drugs; Proton pump inhibitors

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; AMINOGLYCOSIDE; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; CELECOXIB; CYCLOOXYGENASE 2 INHIBITOR; CYCLOSPORIN A; DICLOFENAC; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIURETIC AGENT; ESOMEPRAZOLE; ETORICOXIB; IBUPROFEN; LANSOPRAZOLE; LUMIRACOXIB; MISOPROSTOL; NAPROXEN; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; OMEPRAZOLE; PARACETAMOL; PLACEBO; PROTON PUMP INHIBITOR; ROFECOXIB; VALDECOXIB;

ACUTE KIDNEY FAILURE; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ANEMIA; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CLINICAL TRIAL; COLORECTAL ADENOMA; CONFIDENCE INTERVAL; DIARRHEA; DIGESTIVE SYSTEM PERFORATION; DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ULCER; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; DIVERTICULOSIS; DRUG DOSE REGIMEN; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG FATALITY; DRUG INDUCED DISEASE; DRUG SAFETY; DUODENUM ULCER; DYSPEPSIA; ENTERITIS; GASTROINTESTINAL ENDOSCOPY; GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; HEART INFARCTION; HELICOBACTER INFECTION; HELICOBACTER PYLORI; HIP FRACTURE; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INTESTINE; INTESTINE ULCER; KIDNEY DISEASE; MALABSORPTION; META ANALYSIS; NONHUMAN; OCCULT BLOOD; OSTEOARTHRITIS; PNEUMONIA; POSTOPERATIVE PAIN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN DEPLETION; REVIEW; RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; SIDE EFFECT; SPAIN; STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE; STOMACH OBSTRUCTION; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; TREATMENT DURATION; TREATMENT OUTCOME; TREATMENT WITHDRAWAL; UNITED STATES; UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT;

ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS, NON-STEROIDAL; CORONARY THROMBOSIS; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASES; HELICOBACTER INFECTIONS; HUMANS; KIDNEY DISEASES; PROTON PUMPS;

EID: 33749253696     PISSN: 07853890     EISSN: 16512219     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/07853890600925843     Document Type: Review

References (122)

1. Laine L. Proton pump inhibitor co-therapy with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs-nice or necessary? Rev Gastroenterol Disord. 2004;4 Suppl 4: S33-41.
2. Jones R. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug prescribing: past, present, and future. Am J Med. 2001;110:4S-7S.
3. Wilcox CM, Shalek KA, Cotsonis G. Striking prevalence of over-the-counter nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug use in patients with upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Arch Intern Med. 1994;154:42-6.
4. FitzGerald GA, Patrono C. The coxibs, selective inhibitors of cyclooxygenase-2. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:433-42.
5. Bolten WW. Scientific rationale for specific inhibition of COX-2. J Rheumatol Suppl. 1998;51:2-7.
6. Baron JA, Cole BF, Sandler RS, Haile RW, Ahnen D, Bresalier R, et al. A randomized trial of aspirin to prevent colorectal adenomas. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:891-9.
7. Antithrombotic Trialists' Collaboration. Collaborative meta-analysis of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke in high risk patients. BMJ. 2002 12;324:71-86.
8. Canadian Coordinating Office for Health Technology Assessment. Gastroduodenal ulcers associated with the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: a systematic review of preventive pharmacological interventions. Ottawa: Canadian Coordinating Office for Health Technology Assessment, 2004 Feb. Report no. 12.
9. Rostom A, Dube C, Wells G, Tugwell P, Welch V, Jolicoeur E, et al. Prevention of NSAID-induced gastroduodenal ulcers. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004;(4 (CD002296)):1-111.
10. Hawkey CJ. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug gastropathy. Gastroenterology. 2000 Aug;119:521-35.
11. Yeomans ND, Lanas A, Talley NJ, Thomson AB, Daneshjoo R, Ericksson B, et al. Prevalence and incidence of gastroduodenal ulcers during treatment with vascular protective doses of aspirin. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2005;22:795-801.
12. Brun J, Jones R. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-associated dyspepsia: the scale of the problem. Am J Med. 2001;110:12S-13S.
13. Silverstein FE, Graham DY, Senior JR, Davies HW, Struthers BJ, Bittman RM, et al. Misoprostol reduces serious gastrointestinal complications in patients with rheumatoid arthritis receiving nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 1995;123:241-9.
14. Bombardier C, Laine L, Reicin A, Shapiro D, Burgos-Vargas R, Davis B, et al. Comparison of upper gastrointestinal toxicity of rofecoxib and naproxen in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. VIGOR Study Group. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:1520-8.
15. Silverstein FE, Faich G, Goldstein JL, Simon LS, Pincus T, Whelton A, et al. Gastrointestinal toxicity with celecoxib vs nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis: the CLASS study: A randomized controlled trial. Celecoxib Long-term Arthritis Safety Study. JAMA. 2000;284:1247-55.
16. Schnitzer TJ, Burmester GR, Mysler E, Hochberg MC, Doherty M, Ehrsam E, et al. Comparison of lumiracoxib with naproxen and ibuprofen in the Therapeutic Arthritis Research and Gastrointestinal Event Trial (TARGET), reduction in ulcer complications: randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2004;364:665-74.
17. Tannenbaum H, Bombardier C, Davis P, Russell AS. Third Canadian Consensus Conference Group. An evidence-based approach to prescribing nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Third Canadian Consensus Conference. J Rheumatol. 2006;33:140-57.
18. Erratum in: J Rheumatol. 2006;33:829
19. and J Rheumatol. 2006;33:440.
20. Weil J, Colin-Jones D, Langman M, Lawson D, Logan R, Murphy M, et al. Prophylactic aspirin and risk of peptic ulcer bleeding. BMJ. 1995;310:827-30.
21. Lanas A, Perez-Aisa MA, Feu F, Ponce J, Saperas E, Santolaria S, et al. Investigators of the Asociacion Espanola de Gastroenterologia (AEG). A nationwide study of mortality associated with hospital admission due to severe gastrointestinal events and those associated with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug use. Am J Gastroenterol. 2005;100:1685-93.
22. Tramer MR, Moore RA, Reynolds DJ, McQuay HJ. Quantitative estimation of rare adverse events which follow a biological progression: a new model applied to chronic NSAID use. Pain. 2000;85:169-82.
23. Wolfe MM, Lichtenstein DR, Singh G. Gastrointestinal toxicity of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:1888-99.
24. Perez-Aisa, Del Pino D, Siles M, Lanas A. Clinical trends in ulcer diagnosis in a population with high prevalence of Helicobacter pylori infection. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2005;21:65-72.
25. Fries JF, Murtagh KN, Bennett M, Zatarain E, Lingala B, Bruce B. The rise and decline of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug-associated gastropathy in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50:2433-40.
26. Singh G, Triadafilopoulos G. Epidemiology of NSAID induced gastrointestinal complications. J Rheumatol. 1999;26 Suppl 56:18-24.
27. Laine L, Harper S, Simon T, Bath R, Johanson J, Schwartz H, et al. A randomized trial comparing the effect of rofecoxib, a cylooxigenase 2-specific inhibitor, with that of ibuprofen on the gastroduodenal mucosa of patients with osteoarthritis. Gastroenterology. 1999;117:776-83.
28. Emery P, Zeidler H, Kvien TK, Guslandi M, Naudin R, Stead H, et al. Celecoxib versus diclofenac in long-term management of rheumatoid arthritis: randomised double-blind comparison. Lancet. 1999;354:2106-11.
29. Skelly MM, Hawkey CJ. Dual COX inhibition and upper gastrointestinal damage. Curr Pharm Des. 2003;9:2191-5.
30. Watson DJ, Yu Q, Bolognese JA, Reicin AS, Simon TJ. The upper gastrointestinal safety of rofecoxib vs. NSAIDs: an updated combined analysis. Curr Med Res Opin. 2004;20:1539-48.
31. Moore RA, Derry S, Makinson GT, McQuay HJ. Tolerability and adverse events in clinical trials of celecoxib in osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis: systematic review and meta-analysis of information from company clinical trial reports. Arthritis Res Ther. 2005;7:R644-65.
32. Singh G, Fort JG, Goldstein JL, Levy RA, Hanrahan PS, Bello AE, et al. Celecoxib versus naproxen and diclofenac in osteoarthritis patients: SUCCESS-I Study. Am J Med. 2006;119:255-66.
33. Goldstein JL, Eisen GM, Lewis B, Gralnek IM, Zlotnick S, Fort JG. Investigators. Video capsule endoscopy to prospectively assess small bowel injury with celecoxib, naproxen plus omeprazole, and placebo. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2005;3:133-41.
34. Hunt RH, Harper S, Watson DJ, Yu C, Quan H, Lee M, et al. The gastrointestinal safety of the COX-2 selective inhibitor etoricoxib assessed by both endoscopy and analysis of upper gastrointestinal events. Am J Gastroenterol. 2003;98:1725-33.
35. Mamdani M, Rochon PA, Juurlink DN, Kopp A, Anderson GM, Naglie G, et al. Observational study of upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage in elderly patients given selective cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibitors or conventional non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. BMJ. 2002;325:624.
36. Norgard B, Pedersen L, Johnsen SP, Tarone RE, McLaughlin JK, Friis S, et al. COX-2-selective inhibitors and the risk of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in high-risk patients with previous gastrointestinal diseases: a population-based case-control study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2004;19:817-25.
37. Lanas A, Garcia-Rodriguez LA, Arroyo MA, Gomollón F, Zapata E, Bujanda L, et al. Coxibs, NSAIDs, aspirin, PPIs and the risks of upper GI bleeding in common clinical practice. Gastroenterology. 2005;128:629.
38. Laine L, Maller ES, Yu C, Quan H, Simon T. Ulcer formation with low-dose enteric-coated aspirin and the effect of COX-2 selective inhibition: a double-blind trial. Gastroenterology. 2004;127:395-402.
39. Rahme E, Dasgupta K, Toubouti Y, Barkoun AN, Bardou M. GI effect of rofecoxib and celecoxib versus NSAID in patients on low dose aspirin, a population-based retrospective cohort study. Gastorenterology. 2004;126, A1 abstract no.17.
40. Lanas A, Panes J, Pique JM. Clinical implications of COX-1 and/or COX-2 inhibition for the distal gastrointestinal tract. Curr Pharm Des. 2003;9:2253-66.
41. Laine L, Connors LG, Reicin A, Hawkey CJ, Burgos-Vargas R, Schnitzer TJ, et al. Serious lower gastrointestinal clinical events with nonselective NSAID or coxib use. Gastroenterology. 2003;124:288-92.
42. Lanas A, Sekar MC, Hirschowitz BI. Objective evidence of aspirin use in both ulcer and non-ulcer upper and lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Gastroenterology. 1992;103:862-9.
43. Hunt RH, Bowen B, Mortensen ER, Simon TJ, James C, Cagliola A, et al. A Randomized Trial Measuring Fecal Blood Loss after treatment with rofecoxib, Ibuprofen, or placebo in healthy subjects. Am J Med. 2000;109:201-06.
44. Hawkey C, Smalley W, Ehrsam E, Hoexter G, Richard D, Krammer G, et al. Therapeutic arthritis research and gastrointestinal event trial (TARGET) of lumiracoxib vs naproxen and ibuporfen: incidence of anemia. Gastroenterology. 2005;128:W1567.
45. Bowen B, Yuan Y, James C, Rashid F, Hunt RH. Time course and pattern of blood loss with Ibuprofen treatment in healthy subjects. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2005;3:1075-82.
46. Lanas A, Serrano P, Bajador E, Esteva F, Benito R, Sainz R. Evidence of aspirin use in both upper and lower gastrointestinal perforation. Gastroenterology. 1997;112:683-9.
47. Yuan Y, Wang C, Hunt RH. Non-selective nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and relapse of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD): a system review. Can J Gastroenterol. 2004;18(Suppl A):106A, No 111.
48. Smecuol E, Bai JC, Sugai E, Vázquez H, Niveloni S, Pedreira S, et al. Acute gastrointestinal permeability responses to different nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Gut. 2001;49:650-5.
49. Hunt RH, Harper S, Callegari P, Yu C, Quan H, Evans J, et al. Complementary studies of the gastrointestinal safety of the cyclo-oxygenase-2- selective inhibitor etoricoxib. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2003;17:201-10.
50. Garner SE, Fidan DD, Frankish R, Maxwell L. Rofecoxib for osteoarthritis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005;1: CD005115.
51. Bresalier RS, Sandler RS, Quan H, Bolognese JA, Oxenius B, Horgan K, et al. Adenomatous Polyp Prevention on Vioxx (APPROVe) Trial Investigators. Cardiovascular events associated with rofecoxib in a colorectal adenoma chemoprevention trial. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:1092-102.
52. Watson DJ, Harper SE, Zhao PL, Quan H, Bolognese JA, Simon TJ. Gastrointestinal tolerability of the selective cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitor rofecoxib compared with nonselective COX-1 and COX-2 inhibitors in osteoarthritis. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:2998-3003.
53. Reines SA, Block GA, Morris JC, Liu G, Nessly ML, Lines CR. Rofecoxib: no effect on Alzheimer's disease in a 1-year, randomized, blinded, controlled study. Neurology. 2004;62:66-71.
54. Konstam MA,Weir MR, Reucin A, Shapiro D, Sperling RS, Barr E, et al. Cardiovascular thrombotic events in controlled, clinical trials of rofecoxib. Circulation. 2001;104:2280-8.
55. Solomon SD, McMurray JJ, Pfeffer MA, Wittes J, Fowler R, Finn P, et al. Adenoma Prevention with Celecoxib (APC) Study Investigators. Cardiovascular risk associated with celecoxib in a clinical trial for colorectal adenoma prevention. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:1071-80.
56. Nussmeier NA, Whelton AA, Brown MT, Langford RM, Hoeft A, Parlow JL, et al. Complications of the COX-2 inhibitors parecoxib and valdecoxib after cardiac surgery. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:1081-91.
57. White WB, Strand V, Roberts R, Whelton A. Effects of the cyclooxygenase-2 specific inhibitor valdecoxib versus nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agents and placebo on cardiovascular thrombotic events in patients with arthritis. Am J Ther. 2004;11:244-50.
58. Farkouh ME, Kirshner H, Harrington RA, Ruland S, Verheugt FW, Schnitzer TJ, et al. Comparison of lumiracoxib with naproxen and ibuprofen in the Therapeutic Arthritis Research and Gastrointestinal Event Trial (TARGET), cardiovascular outcomes: randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2004;364:675-84.
59. Konstantinopoulos PA, Lehmann DF. The cardiovascular toxicity of selective and nonselective cyclooxygenase inhibitors: comparisons, contrasts, and aspirin confounding. J Clin Pharmacol. 2005;45:742-50.
60. Hippisley-Cox J, Coupland C. Risk of myocardial infarction in patients taking cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibitors or conventional non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: population based nested case-control analysis. BMJ. 2005;330:1366.
61. Ray WA, Stein CM, Hall K, Daugherty JR, Griffin MR. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and risk of serious coronary heart disease: an observational cohort study. Lancet. 2002;359:118-23.
62. Chan AT, Manson JE, Albert CM, Chae CU, Rexrode KM, Curhan GC, et al. Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs, Acetaminophen, and the Risk of Cardiovascular Events. Circulation. 2006;113:1578-87.
63. Helin-Salmivaara A, Virtanen A, Vesalainen R, Gronroos JM, Klaukka T, Idanpaan-Heikkila JE, et al. NSAID use and the risk of hospitalization for first myocardial infarction in the general population: a nationwide case-control study from Finland. Eur Heart J. 2006;27:1657-63.
64. Kearney PM, Baigent C, Godwin J, Halls H, Emberson JR, Patrono C. Do selective cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibitors and traditional non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs increase the risk of atherothrombosis? Meta-analysis of randomised trials. BMJ. 2006;332:1302-8.
65. Capone ML, Sciulli MG, Tacconelli S, Grana M, Ricciotti E, Renda G, et al. Pharmacodynamic interaction of naproxen with low-dose aspirin in healthy subjects. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45:1295-301.
66. Crofford LJ, Strand CV, Rushitzka F, Brune K, Farkouh ME, Simon LS. Cardiovascular Effects of Selective COX-2 Inhibition: Is There a Class Effect? The International COX-2 Study Group. J Rheumatol. 2006;33:1403-8.
67. Fosslien E. Cardiovascular complications of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Ann Clin Lab Sci. 2005;35:347-85.
68. Pham K, Hirschberg R. Global safety of coxibs and NSAIDs. Curr Top Med Chem. 2005;5:465-73.
69. Staessen JA, Li Y, Thijs L, Wang JG. Blood pressure reduction and cardiovascular prevention: an update including the 2003-2004 secondary prevention trials. Hypertens Res. 2005;28:385-407.
70. Maradit-Kremers H, Crowson CS, Nicola PJ, Ballman KV, Roger VL, Jacobsen SJ, et al. Increased unrecognized coronary heart disease and sudden deaths in rheumatoid arthritis: a population-based cohort study. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;52:402-11.
71. Swanberg M, Lidman O, Padyukov L, Eriksson P, Akesson E, Jagodic M, et al. MHC2TA is associated with differential MHC molecule expression and susceptibility to rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis and myocardial infarction. Nat Genet. 2005;37:486-94.
72. Sanmuganathan PS, Ghahramani P, Jackson PR, Wallis EJ, Ramsay LE. Aspirin for primary prevention of coronary heart disease: safety and absolute benefit related to coronary risk derived from meta-analysis of randomised trials. Heart. 2001;85:265-71.
73. Mukherjee D, Nissen SE, Topol EJ. Risk of cardiovascular events associated with selective COX-2 inhibitors. JAMA. 2001;286:954-9.
74. Johnsen SP, Larsson H, Tarone RE, McLaughlin JK, Norgard B, Friis S, et al. Risk of hospitalization for myocardial infarction among users of rofecoxib, celecoxib, and other NSAIDs: a population-based case-control study. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165:978-84.
75. Kurth T, Glynn RJ, Walker AM, Chan KA, Buring JE, Hennekens CH, et al. Inhibition of Clinical Benefits of Aspirin on First Myocardial Infarction by Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs. Circulation. 2003;108:1191-5.
76. Cheng HF, Harris RC. Renal effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors. Curr Pharm Des. 2005;11:1795-804.
77. Harley C, Wagner S. The prevalence of cardiorenal risk factors in patients prescribed nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: data from managed care. Clin Ther. 2003;25:139-49.
78. Sowers JR, White WB, Pitt B, Whelton A, Simon LS, Winer N, et al. The Effects of cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory therapy on 24-hour blood pressure in patients with hypertension, osteoarthritis, and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165:161-8.
79. Erratum in: Arch Intern Med. 200514;165:551.
80. Robinson M. Proton pump inhibitors: update on their role in acid-related gastrointestinal diseases. Int J Clin Pract. 2005;59:709-15.
81. Chan FK, Chung SC, Suen BY, Lee YT, Leung WK, Leung VK, et al. Preventing recurrent upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients with Helicobacter pylori infection who are taking low-dose aspirin or naproxen. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:967-73.
82. Chan FK, Hung LC, Suen BY, Wu JC, Lee KC, Leung VK, et al. Celecoxib versus diclofenac and omeprazole in reducing the risk of recurrent ulcer bleeding in patients with arthritis. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:2104-10.
83. Lai KC, Lam SK, Chu KM, Wong BC, Hui WM, Hu WH, et al. Lansoprazole for the prevention of recurrences of ulcer complications from long-term low-dose aspirin use. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:2033-8.
84. Chan F, Ching JY, Hung LC, Wong VW, Leung VK, Kung NM, et al. Clopidogrel versus aspirin and esomeprazole to prevent recurrent ulcer bleeding. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:238-44.
85. Lanas A, Bajador E, Serrano P, Fuentes J, Carreño S, Guardia J, et al. Nitrovasodilators, low-dose aspirin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and the risk of upper gastrointestinal bleeding. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:834-9.
86. Kimmey MB, Lanas A. Review article: appropriate use of proton pump inhibitors with traditional nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and COX-2 selective inhibitors. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2004;19 Suppl 1:60-5.
87. Abraham NS, El-Serag NB, Johnson M, Hartman C, Richardson P, Ray W, et al. National adherence to evidence-based guidelines for the prescription of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Gastroenterology. 2005;129:1171-8.
88. Sturkenboom MC, Burke TA, Dieleman JP, Tangelder MJ, Lee F, Goldstein JL. Underutilization of preventive strategies in patients receiving NSAIDs. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2003;42 Suppl 3: iii23-31.
89. Cullen D, Bardhan KD, Eisner M, Kogut DG, Peacock RA, Thomson JM, et al. Primary gastroduodenal prophylaxis with omeprazole for non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug users. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 1998;12:135-40.
90. Peura D. Prevention of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-associated gastrointestinal symptoms and ulcer complications. Am J Med. 2004;117 Suppl 5A:63S-71S.
91. Hawkey C, Talley NJ, Yeomans ND, Jones R, Sung JJ, Langstrom G, et al. Improvements with esomeprazole in patients with upper gastrointestinal symptoms taking nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs, including selective COX-2 inhibitors. Am J Gastroenterol. 2005;100:1028-36.
92. Lai K, Hui W, Wong B, Hu W, Chan O, Lam S. Lansoprazole but not rofecoxib reduced dyspeptic symptoms of patients on NSAIDs. Gastroenterology. 2005;128:137.
93. Labenz J, Petersen KU, Rosch W, Koelz HR. A summary of Food and Drug Administration-reported adverse events and drug interactions occurring during therapy with omeprazole, lansoprazole and pantoprazole. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2003;17:1015-9.
94. Laheij RJ, Sturkenboom MC, Hassing RJ, Dieleman J, Stricker BH, Jansen JB. Risk of community-acquired pneumonia and use of gastric acid-suppressive drugs. JAMA. 2004;292:1955-60.
95. Vakevainen S, Tillonen J, Salaspuro M, Jousimies-Somer H, Nuutinen H, Farkkila M. Hypochlorhydria induced by a proton pump inhibitor leads to intragastric microbial production of acetaldehyde from ethanol. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2000;14:1511-8.
96. Yang Y, Lewis JD, Epstein S, Metz DC. Chronic acid-suppressive therapy and the risk if hip fracture. Gastroenterology. 2005;128:861.
97. Sturkenboom MC, Burke TA, Tangelder MJ, Dieleman JP, Walton S, Goldstein JL. Adherence to proton pump inhibitors or H2-receptor antagonists during the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2003 Dec;18:1137-47.
98. Goldstein JL, Howard K, McLaughlin T, Walton S, Kruzikas DT. The effectiveness of concomitant PPI therapy in preventing NSAID-related gastroduodenal mucosal injury. Does adherence matter? Gastroenterology. 2005;128:860.
99. Goldstein JL, Silverstein FE, Agrawal NM, Hubbard RC, Kaiser J, Clement JM, et al. Reduced risk of upper gastrointestinal ulcer complications with celecoxib, a novel COX-2 inhibitor. Am J Gastroenterol. 2000;95:1681-90.
100. Hawkey CJ, Laine L, Simon T, Quan H, Shingo S, Evans J. Rofecoxib Rheumatoid Arthritis Endoscopy Study Group. Incidence of gastroduodenal ulcers in patients with rheumatoid arthritis after 12 weeks of rofecoxib, naproxen, or placebo: a multicentre, randomised, double blind study. Gut. 2003;52:820-6.
101. Erratum in: Gut. 2003;52:1800.
102. Yuan Y, Hunt RH. Assessment of the safety of selective cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibitors: where are we in 2003? Inflammopharmacology. 2003;11:337-54.
103. Hooper L, Brown TJ, Elliott R, Payne K, Roberts C, Symmons D. The effectiveness of five strategies for the prevention of gastrointestinal toxicity induced by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: systematic review. BMJ. 2004;329:948-57.
104. Harley C, Wagner S. Persistence with COX-2 inhibitors in managed care: an analysis of claims data. Manag Care Interface. 2003;16:38-45.
105. Laine L, Wogen J, Yu H. Gastrointestinal health care resource utilization with chronic use of COX-2-specific inhibitors versus traditional NSAIDs. Gastroenterology. 2003;125:389-95.
106. Lanas A. Economic analysis of strategies in the prevention of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced complications in the gastrointestinal tract. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2004;20:321-31.
107. Chan FK, Hung LC, Suen BY, Wong VW, Hui AJ, Wu JC, et al. Celecoxib versus diclofenac plus omeprazole in high-risk arthritis patients: results of a randomized double-blind trial. Gastroenterology. 2004;127:1038-43.
108. Scheiman J, Cryer B, Asaka M, Berenbaum F, Bonnet J, Chan FKL, et al. Panel Discussion: treatment approaches to control gastrointestinal risk and balance cardiovascular risks and benefits: proposals and recommendations. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2005; suppl 1:26-32.
109. Rahme E, Barkun A, Toubouti Y, Rochon S, LeLorier J. Do proton pump inhibitors (PPI) infer additional gastrointestinal protection in patients given celecoxib? a retrospective cohort study. Gastroenterology. 2005;128:864.
110. Chan FKL, Wong VW, Suen BY, Wu JC, Leung WH, Le YT, et al. Proton pump inhibitor plus a COX-2 selective inhibitors for the prevention of recurrent ulcer bleeding in patients with arthritis. A double blind, randomized trial. Gastroenterology. 2006;130:133(A732).
111. Huang JQ, Sridhar L, Hunt RH. Role of Helicobacter pylori infection and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in peptic-ulcer disease: a meta-analysis. Lancet. 2002;359:14-22.
112. Chan FK, Sung JJ, Chung SC, To KF, Yung MY, Leung VK, et al. Randomised trial of eradication of Helicobacter pylori before non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug therapy to prevent peptic ulcers. Lancet. 1997;350:975-9.
113. Chan FK, To KF, Wu JC, Yung MY, Leung VK, Kwok T, et al. Eradication of Helicobacter pylori and risk of peptic ulcers in patients starting long-term treatment with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2002;359:9-13.
114. Labenz J, Blum AL, Bolten WW, Dragosics B, Rosch W, Stolte M, et al. Primary prevention of diclofenac associated ulcers and dyspepsia by omeprazole or triple therapy in Helicobacter pylori positive patients: a randomised, double blind, placebo controlled, clinical trial. Gut. 2002;51:329-35.
115. Hawkey CJ, Tulassay Z, Szczepanski L, Van Rensburg CJ, Filipowicz-Sosnowska A, Lanas A, et al. Randomised controlled trial of Helicobacter pylori eradication in patients on non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: HELP NSAIDs study. Lancet. 1998;352:1016-21.
116. Comment in: Lancet. 1998;352:1001-3.
117. Erratum in: Lancet. 1998;352:1634.
118. Lanas A, Fuentes J, Benito R, Serrano P, Bajador E, Sainz R. Helicobacter pylori increases the risk of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients taking low-dose aspirin. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2002;16:779-86.
119. Chan F, Ching J, Suen B, Wong V, Hung L, Hui A, et al. Eradication of H. pylori for the prevention of recurrent ulcer bleeding in high-risk aspirin users: a 4-year prospective cohort study. Gastroenterology. 2005;128:835.
120. Laine L, Bombardier C, Hawkey CJ, Davis B, Shapiro D, Brett C, et al. Stratifying the risk of NSAID-related upper gastrointestinal clinical events: results of a double-blind outcomes study in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Gastroenterology. 2002;123:1006-12.
121. Hayden M, Pignone M, Phillips C, Mulrow C. Aspirin for the primary prevention of cardiovascular events: a summary of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 2002;136:161-72.
122. Hingorani AD, Vallance P. A Simple computer program for guiding management of cardiovascular risk factors and prescribing. BMJ. 1999;318:101-5.