From patriotic memories to 'patriotic history' in Zimbabwe, 1990-2005

Third World Quarterly

Volumn 27, Issue 6, 2006, Pages 1151-1169

  Kriger, Norma ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

MILITARY GOVERNMENT; POLITICAL CONFLICT; POLITICAL DISCOURSE; POLITICAL PARTICIPATION; POLITICAL POWER;

AFRICA; SOUTHERN AFRICA; SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA; ZIMBABWE;

EID: 33749054742     PISSN: 01436597     EISSN: 13602241     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01436590600842472     Document Type: Article

References (89)

1. P Lagrou, The Legacy of Nazi Occupation: Patriotic Memory and National Recovery in Western Europe, 1945-1965, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000, esp the introduction, ch 1 and the conclusion.
2. Ibid, p 301.
3. F Chung, Re-living the Second Chimurenga: Memories from Zimbabwe's Liberation Struggle, Sweden and Zimbabwe: The Nordic Africa Institute in cooperation with Weaver Press, 2006, esp pp 156-160.
4. N Kriger, Guerrilla Veterans in Post-War Zimbabwe: Symbolic and Violent Politics, 1980-1987, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
5. See also Kriger, 'Veterans' pensions in Zimbabwe: Dispute resolution and nation-building', Ohio State Journal on Dispute Resolution, 20, (1), 2005, pp 249-272.
6. For ZIPRA veterans contrasting themselves as 'real soldiers' with ZANLA's politicised army, see J Alexander & J McGregor, 'Veterans, violence and nationalism in Zimbabwe', in E Bay & D Donham (eds), States of Violence: Politics, Youth and Memory in Contemporary Africa, Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press, 2006.
7. A Sparks, Beyond the Miracle: Inside the New South Africa, London: Pro.le Books, 2003, pp 255-257.
8. For a discussion of ex-political prisoners, detainees and restrictees, see International Defence & Aid Fund, Political Prisoners in Rhodesia in 1979, Fact Paper on Southern Africa No 7, London, February 1980.
9. Ibid.
10. Minister Shava, House of Assembly Debates (HAD), 21 February 1984, v9, n14, cols 661-662.
11. 'Motion - Status of National Heroes', HAD, 11 April 1991, v17, n79, cols 4284-4302.
12. Mrs Dongo, 'Motion - Status of National Heroes', HAD, 11 April 1991, v17, n79, col 4285.
13. Ibid, col 4287.
14. 'Motion - Status of National Heroes', HAD, 11 April 1991, v17, n79, cols 4289-4290.
15. Ibid, cols 4291-4297.
16. Thanks to Judith Mashinya for the translation.
17. See 'Motion - Status of National Heroes', HAD, 11 April 1991, v17, n79, cols 4298-4299, 4301 for the contributions of Ministers Mnangagwa, Zvobgo and Dabengwa.
18. Eg Mr Malunga, 'Second Reading - National Heroes', HAD, 21 October 1993, v20, n41, cols 3220, 3221; and Mr Nzarayebani, col 3223.
19. Mr Nzarayebani, 'Second Reading - National Heroes', HAD, 21 October 1993, v20, n41, cols 3225-3226, 3229.
20. 'Motion - Deceased Freedom Fighters and Detainees', HAD, 30 August 1995, v22, n35, cols 2252-2267. Irene Zindi seconded the motion.
21. 'Motion - Deceased Freedom Fighters and Detainees', HAD, 30 November 1995, v22, n57, cols 3386-3389 contains Mr Chigwedere's summary of speakers' contributions.
22. Mr Marange, 'Motion - Deceased Freedom Fighters and Detainees', HAD, 5 September 1995, v22, n37, col 2387.
23. See also Mr Njekesa, 'Motion - Deceased Freedom Fighters and Detainees', HAD, 6 September 1995, v22, n38, col 2535, who contrasts the superior contributions of some who stayed inside the country with those who came late to Mozambique from overseas.
24. Mr J Maluzo Ndlovu, 'Motion - Deceased Freedom Fighters and Detainees', HAD, 5 September 1995, v22, n37, col 2390;
25. Mr Wadyewata, 'Motion - Deceased Freedom Fighters and Detainees', HAD, 3 October 1995, v22, n43, cols 2809-2811; and
26. Mr Shambambeva-Nyandoro, 'Motion - Deceased Freedom Fighters and Detainees', HAD, 3 October 1995, v22, n43, cols 2812-2814.
27. Mr Wadyewata, 'Motion - Deceased Freedom Fighters and Detainees', HAD, 3 October 1995, v22, n43, col 2810.
28. 'Motion - Jairos Jiri and National Leaders', HAD, 15 August 1996, v23, n13, cols 736-740.
29. Aeneas Chigwedere, 'Motion - Jairos Jiri and National Leaders', HAD, 23 October 1996, v23, n38, col 2471.
30. Kriger, Guerrilla Veterans in Post-War Zimbabwe discusses former political prisoners' resentment toward ex-combatants who received demobilisation money and privileged entry into the new army, police and civil service, while they received no state assistance.
31. War Veterans Act, 1992, Section 7.
32. Deputy Minister of Labour, Manpower Planning and Social Welfare, 'Second Reading - War Veterans Administration Bill', HAD, 31 March 1992, v18, n68, col 5001. See also War Veterans Act, 1992, Section 2.
33. Deputy Minister of Labour, Manpower Planning and Social Welfare, 'Second Reading - War Veterans Administration Bill', HAD, 7 April 1992, v18, n71, cols 5219-5220.
34. Mrs Dongo, MP, Second Reading - War Veterans Bill, HAD, 2 April 1992, v18, n70, col 5163 provided the estimated number of ex-combatant members of parliament.
35. Mr Nzarabeyani, MP, 'Second Reading - War Veterans Administration Bill', HAD, 2 April 1992, v18, n70, cols 5132-5135.
36. Mr Kudzedzereka, MP, 'Second Reading - War Veterans Administration Bill', HAD, 7 April 1992, v18, n71, col 5202.
37. Mr Nzarayebani, MP, Second Reading - War Veterans Bill, HAD, 2 April 1992, v18, n70, col 5134; Mr Duri, MP, ibid, col 5138; Mr Gara, ibid, col 5142; and Mrs Dongo, ibid, col 5167. For Deputy Minister Mrs Chitauro on the main thrust of the war veterans' request being land acquisition, see Second Reading - War Veterans Bill, HAD, 7 April 1992, v18, n71, col 5218; Mrs Dongo, 'Committee Stage - War Veterans Bill,' HAD, 8 April 1992, v18, n72, col 5377; and Dr Chavunduka, Second Reading - War Veterans Bill, HAD, 7 April 1992, v18, n71, col 5192.
38. Dr Chavunduka, Second Reading - War Veterans Bill, HAD, 7 April 1992, v18, n71, col 5192; see also ex-combatant Lt Col Mahlaba, Governor of Midlands, on the two phases, Second Reading - War Veterans Bill, HAD, 2 April 1992, v18, n70, col 5170.
39. Mrs Dongo, 'Second Reading - War Veterans Administration Bill', HAD, 2 April 1992, v18, n70, col 5164.
40. Lt Col Herbert Mahlaba, 'Second Reading - War Veterans Administration Bill', HAD, 2 April 1992, v18, n70, cols 5171-5174.
41. Mrs Dongo, 'Second Reading - War Veterans Administration Bill', HAD, 2 April 1992, v18, n70, col 5161.
42. Mrs Chinomona, 'Second Reading - War Veterans Administration Bill', HAD, 2 April 1992, v18, n70, col 5161. See also col 5154.
43. Mrs Dongo, Second Reading - War Veterans Bill, HAD, 2 April 1992, v18, n70, col 5164; Mrs Chinonoma, ibid, col 5155; and Mr Shambambeva-Nyandoro, Second Reading - War Veterans Bill, HAD, 7 April 1992, v18, n71, cols 5209-5210.
44. Chief Mangwende, Second Reading - War Veterans Bill, HAD, 7 April 1992, v18, n71, cols 5203-5204.
45. Mrs Chinamano, 'Motion - Plight of Veteran Politicians', HAD, 4 May 1993, v19, n75, cols 5999-6004.
46. Gonakudzingwa was closed down in May 1974 following the change of government in neighbouring Mozambique. See Amnesty International, Briefing, Rhodesia/Zimbabwe, London: Amnesty International, 1976, p 9.
47. Mr Nzarayebani, 'Motion - Plight of Veteran Politicians', HAD, 4 May 1993, v19, n75, cols 6013-6014.
48. Mr Marwodzi, 'Motion - Plight of Veteran Politicians', HAD, 4 May 1993, v19, n75, cols 6033-6034.
49. Mr Marwodzi, 'Motion - Plight of Veteran Politicians', HAD, 4 May 1993, v19, n75, cols 6034-6036.
50. Mrs Dongo, 'Motion - Plight of Veteran Politicians', HAD, 19 May 1993, v19, n82, col 6648.
51. ZANU PF Department of Information and Publicity, 'National Heroes of Zimbabwe: Role Models for our Youth', Harare, 1997 contains poorly written biographies of the national heroes upon which I have depended for the breakdown of national heroes' political and military backgrounds.
52. Mr Malunga, 'Motion - Plight of Veteran Politicians', HAD, 4 May 1993, v19, n75, cols 6020-6021.
53. Mr Nyashanu, 'Motion - Plight of Veteran Politicians', HAD, 4 May 1993, v19, n75, col 6028.
54. Mr Ncube, 'Motion - Plight of Veteran Politicians', HAD, 19 May 1993, v19, n82, cols 6646-6647.
55. Mrs Masuku, 'Motion - Plight of Veteran Politicians', HAD, 19 May 1993, v19, n82, cols 6653-6654.
56. 'Motion - Political Detainees Bill', HAD, 24 July 1996, v23, n9, cols 362-363.
57. 'Motion-Political Detainees Bill', HAD, 24 July 1996, v23, n9, col 365.
58. Mrs Tungamirai, 'Motion - Political Detainees Bill', HAD, 24 July 1996, v23, n9, cols 371-373.
59. Mr Chigwedere presented the Political Detainees Bill. HAD, 18 February 1997, v23, n55, col 3411.
60. Political Detainees Bill 1996, HB29.
61. Minister Msika, 'Motion - Political Detainees Bill', HAD, 24 July 1996, v23, n9, col 381.
62. R Cornwell, 'Zimbabwe: Mugabe's choice', African Security Review, 7 (2), 1998, at http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/ASR/7No2/AfricaWatch.html.
63. First Reading - War Veterans Amendment, HB 15, 1997, HAD, 1 October 1997.
64. Mr Chigwedere, Second Reading - War Veterans Bill, HAD, 25 November 1997, v24, n30, col 2540.
65. Ibid, cols 2540-2541.
66. Mr Mavhaire, Second Reading - War Veterans Bill, HAD, 25 November 1997, v24, n30, col 2541.
67. Amnesty International, Briefing, Rhodesia/Zimbabwe, p 8.
68. 'Human Rights Violations in Rhodesia, 1978-79', Statement by Amnesty International to the US House of Representatives, November 1979, p 7.
69. War Veterans Amendment Bill, HB 29, 1999.
70. Mr Mujuru, 'Second Reading - War Veterans Bill, HAD, 18 February 1999, v25, n56, cols 4059-60.
71. Ex-Political Prisoners, Detainees, and Restrictees Act, Act No 20 of 2004.
72. HAD, 26 October 2004, v31, n13; and HAD, 28 October 2004, v31, n15.
73. See, for example, the contributions of Gibson Sibanda, Paul Temba Nyathi, and Mzila Ndlovu, HAD, 26 October 2004, v31, n13, cols 698-704, 713-716, 718-721.
74. T Ranger, 'Nationalist historiography, patriotic history and the history of the nation: The struggle over the past in Zimbabwe', Journal of Southern African Studies, 30 (2), 2004, pp 215-234.
75. T Ranger, 'The uses and abuses of history in Zimbabwe', in M Palmberg & R Primorac (eds), Skinning the Skunk - Facing Zimbabwean Futures, Uppsala: Nordic Africa Institute, 2005, p 7. In an e-mail exchange about the origins of 'patriotic history' on 23 January 2006, Ranger also says he coined the term 'patriotic history'. The term is also attributed to Ranger in the British Zimbabwe Society Review, August 2005, p 5.
76. Ranger, 'Nationalist historiography, patriotic history and the history of the nation'; Ranger, 'The uses and abuses of history in Zimbabwe'; B Raftopoulos, 'The state in crisis: Authoritarian nationalism, selective citizenship and distortions of democracy in Zimbabwe', in A Hammar, B Raftopoulos & S Jensen (eds), Zimbabwe's Unfinished Business, Harare: Weaver Press, 2003, pp 217- 242;
77. I Phimister & B Raftopoulos, 'Zimbabwe now: The political economy of crisis and coercion', Historical Materialism, 12 (4), 2004, pp 355-382;
78. B Raftopoulos, 'Nation, race and history in Zimbabwean politics', in B Raftopolous & T Savage (eds), Zimbabwe: Injustice and Political Reconciliation, Harare: Weaver Press, 2004, pp 160-175; and
79. Alexander & McGregor, 'Veterans, violence and nationalism in Zimbabwe'. See also L White, The Assassination of Herbert Chitepo: Texts and Politics in Zimbabwe, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2003, esp ch 6; and
80. W Willems, 'Remnants of Empire? British media reporting on Zimbabwe', Westminster Papers in Communications and Culture (special issue on 'The Media and Zimbabwe'), November 2005, pp 1-18.
81. Ranger, 'Nationalist historiography, patriotic history and the history of the nation'.
82. Raftopoulos, 'The state in crisis', p 218.
83. Kriger, Guerrilla Veterans in Post-War Zimbabwe.
84. N Kriger, 'ZANU(PF) strategies in general elections, 1980-2000: discourse and coercion', African Affairs, 104 (414), 2005, pp 1-34.
85. B Raftopoulos, 'Zimbabwe: Race and nationalism in a post-colonial state', in P Kaarsholm & J Hultin (eds), Inventions and Boundaries: Historical and Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Ethnicity and Nationalism, Roskilde, Denmark: International Development Studies, Roskilde University, 1994, pp 75-102. Raftopoulos used the example of Joshua Nkomo, then Vice-President, complaining that his company, Zimbabwe Development Trust, should not have to pay the Bulawayo town council for its stands [plots] because he spent 11 years in detention (p 87).
86. For example, R Werbner, 'Smoke from the barrel of a gun', in Werbner, Memory and the Postcolony: African Anthropology and the Critique of Power, London: Zed Books, 1998, pp 71-104, quotes statements by the ZANU PF Harare Province in 1996 and its A.rmative Action Group in 1993 (p 90).
87. Chung, Re-living the Second Chimurenga, pp 130-131, 160.
88. Ibid, p 149. See also p 193.
89. For example, for the justifications by N Shamuyarira andMNyagumbo of party youths raping women who disobeyed the bus boycott in 1956, see B Raftopoulos, 'Gender, nationalist politics and the fight for the city: Harare 1940-1950s', Southern African Feminist Review, 1 (2), 1995, pp 41-42.