-
1
-
-
84965682146
-
The Strength of Loose Concepts - Boundary Concepts, Federative Strategies and Disciplinary Growth: The Case of Immunology
-
Ilana Löwy, "The Strength of Loose Concepts - Boundary Concepts, Federative Strategies and Disciplinary Growth: The Case of Immunology," Hist. Sci., 1992, 30, 376-82.
-
(1992)
Hist. Sci.
, vol.30
, pp. 376-382
-
-
Löwy, I.1
-
2
-
-
33749011534
-
The Biological Basis of Individuality
-
Leo Leob, "The Biological Basis of Individuality," Science, 1937, 86, 1-5;
-
(1937)
Science
, vol.86
, pp. 1-5
-
-
Leob, L.1
-
3
-
-
0001704166
-
Further Experimental Studies on the Inheritance of Susceptibility to a Transplantable Tumor, Carcinoma (J. w. A.) of the Japanese Waltzing Mouse
-
Clarence C. Little and E. E. Tyzzer, "Further Experimental Studies on the Inheritance of Susceptibility to a Transplantable Tumor, Carcinoma (J. w. A.) of the Japanese Waltzing Mouse," J. Med. Res., 1916, 33, 393-427.
-
(1916)
J. Med. Res.
, vol.33
, pp. 393-427
-
-
Little, C.C.1
Tyzzer, E.E.2
-
6
-
-
0005984244
-
'Actively Acquired Tolerance' of Foreign Cells
-
Rupert E. Billingham, Leslie Brent, and Peter B. Medawar, "'Actively Acquired Tolerance' of Foreign Cells," Nature, 1953, 172, 603-6.
-
(1953)
Nature
, vol.172
, pp. 603-606
-
-
Billingham, R.E.1
Brent, L.2
Medawar, P.B.3
-
9
-
-
0026335343
-
Some Landmarks in Australian Immunology
-
Gustav J. V. Nossal, "Some Landmarks in Australian Immunology," Immunol. Cell Biol., 1991, 69, 329;
-
(1991)
Immunol. Cell Biol.
, vol.69
, pp. 329
-
-
Nossal, G.J.V.1
-
10
-
-
0032859749
-
Tolerance and Auto-immunity: 50 Years after Burnet
-
Alberto Martini and Giuseppe R. Burgio, "Tolerance and Auto-immunity: 50 Years after Burnet," Eur. J. Pediatr., 1999, 158, 769-70;
-
(1999)
Eur. J. Pediatr.
, vol.158
, pp. 769-770
-
-
Martini, A.1
Burgio, G.R.2
-
11
-
-
0026321219
-
The 'Burnet Era' of Immunology: Origins and Influence
-
Ian R. Mackay, "The 'Burnet Era' of Immunology: Origins and Influence," Immunol. Cell Biol., 1991, 69, 301-2;
-
(1991)
Immunol. Cell Biol.
, vol.69
, pp. 301-302
-
-
Mackay, I.R.1
-
15
-
-
0028717276
-
Darwinian Overtones: Niels K. Jerne and the Origin of the Selection Theory of Antibody Formation
-
Thomas Söderqvist, "Darwinian Overtones: Niels K. Jerne and the Origin of the Selection Theory of Antibody Formation," J. Hist. Biol., 1994, 27, 489;
-
(1994)
J. Hist. Biol.
, vol.27
, pp. 489
-
-
Söderqvist, T.1
-
16
-
-
0025655348
-
Variances in Meaning in Discovery Accounts: The Case of Contemporary Biology
-
Ilana Löwy, "Variances in Meaning in Discovery Accounts: The Case of Contemporary Biology," Hist. Stud. Phys. Biol. Sci., 1990, 21, 87-121;
-
(1990)
Hist. Stud. Phys. Biol. Sci.
, vol.21
, pp. 87-121
-
-
Löwy, I.1
-
18
-
-
0028686306
-
Frank Macfarlane Burnet and the Immune Self
-
Alfred I. Tauber and Scott H. Podolsky, "Frank Macfarlane Burnet and the Immune Self," J. Hist. Biol., 1994, 27, 546-64;
-
(1994)
J. Hist. Biol.
, vol.27
, pp. 546-564
-
-
Tauber, A.I.1
Podolsky, S.H.2
-
21
-
-
40849128586
-
Selfhood, Immunity, and the Biological Imagination: The Thought of Frank Macfarlane Burnet
-
Eileen Crist and Alfred I. Tauber, "Selfhood, Immunity, and the Biological Imagination: The Thought of Frank Macfarlane Burnet," Biol. Philos., 2000, 15, 511-17.
-
(2000)
Biol. Philos.
, vol.15
, pp. 511-517
-
-
Crist, E.1
Tauber, A.I.2
-
22
-
-
2542546757
-
-
Among these diverse issues, Tauber mentioned the influence of genetics on Burnet's conception of the "self-marker" theory. However, Tauber wrote that the existence of this self-marker itself became less important than the enzymes that recognized these markers during embryonic development. The structure of these enzymes was made according to environmental influences during the development rather than was genetically determined. See Tauber, Immune Self, 105-13;
-
Immune Self
, pp. 105-113
-
-
Tauber1
-
25
-
-
33749023141
-
Discussion sur l'étiologie du charbon; poules rendues charbonneuses
-
Louis Pasteur, "Discussion sur l'étiologie du charbon; poules rendues charbonneuses," Bull. Acad. Sci., 1878, 7, 253-62,
-
(1878)
Bull. Acad. Sci.
, vol.7
, pp. 253-262
-
-
Pasteur, L.1
-
26
-
-
33749024560
-
-
ed. Vallery-Radot Pasteur, 7 vols. Paris: Masson
-
in Oeuvres de Pasteur réunies, ed. Vallery-Radot Pasteur, 7 vols. (Paris: Masson, 1933), VI, 210-14;
-
(1933)
Oeuvres de Pasteur Réunies
, vol.6
, pp. 210-214
-
-
-
27
-
-
33749019186
-
Erste Konferenz zur Eröterung der Cholerafrage
-
Robert Koch, "Erste Konferenz zur Eröterung der Cholerafrage," Berl. klin. Wochenschr., 1884, 21, 496-507.
-
(1884)
Berl. Klin. Wochenschr.
, vol.21
, pp. 496-507
-
-
Koch, R.1
-
28
-
-
0023413442
-
Koch's Comma Bacillus: The First Year
-
In fact, a strict causal relationship between a germ and a disease, which was assumed in "Koch's Postulates," could not be found in many cases of infectious disease. On the problem of Koch's postulates, see William Coleman, "Koch's Comma Bacillus: The First Year," Bull. Hist. Med., 1997, 61, 315-42;
-
(1997)
Bull. Hist. Med.
, vol.61
, pp. 315-342
-
-
Coleman, W.1
-
29
-
-
0343663884
-
Dr. Koch's Postulates
-
Lester S. King, "Dr. Koch's Postulates," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1952, 7, 350-61;
-
(1952)
J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci.
, vol.7
, pp. 350-361
-
-
King, L.S.1
-
31
-
-
0242680068
-
From Eradication to Equilibrium: How Epidemics Became Complex after World War I
-
ed. Christopher Lawrence and George Weisz New York: Oxford University Press
-
J. Andrew Mendelsohn, "From Eradication to Equilibrium: How Epidemics Became Complex after World War I," in Greater than the Parts: Holism in Biomedicine, 1920-1950, ed. Christopher Lawrence and George Weisz (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 303-31;
-
(1998)
Greater Than the Parts: Holism in Biomedicine, 1920-1950
, pp. 303-331
-
-
Mendelsohn, J.A.1
-
32
-
-
85071585754
-
Medicine and the Making of Bodily Inequality in Twentieth Century Europe
-
ed. Jean-Paul Gaudillière and Ilana Löwy London: Routledge
-
J. Andrew Mendelsohn, "Medicine and the Making of Bodily Inequality in Twentieth Century Europe," in Heredity and Infection: The History of Disease Transmission, ed. Jean-Paul Gaudillière and Ilana Löwy (London: Routledge, 2001), 21-79;
-
(2001)
Heredity and Infection: The History of Disease Transmission
, pp. 21-79
-
-
Mendelsohn, J.A.1
-
33
-
-
0023504399
-
Explanations and Ideologies of Mortality Patterns
-
Stephen J. Kunitz, "Explanations and Ideologies of Mortality Patterns," Popul. Dev. Rev., 1987, 13, 382-85;
-
(1987)
Popul. Dev. Rev.
, vol.13
, pp. 382-385
-
-
Kunitz, S.J.1
-
38
-
-
0042929578
-
Troubles from Within: Allergy, Autoimmunity, and Pathology in the First Half of the Twentieth Century
-
Ohad Parnes, "Troubles from Within: Allergy, Autoimmunity, and Pathology in the First Half of the Twentieth Century," Stud. Hist. Phil. Biol. Biomed. Sci., 2003, 34, 425-54;
-
(2003)
Stud. Hist. Phil. Biol. Biomed. Sci.
, vol.34
, pp. 425-454
-
-
Parnes, O.1
-
39
-
-
0023450472
-
Medical and Biological Constraints: Early Research on Variation in Bacteriology
-
Olga Amsterdamska, "Medical and Biological Constraints: Early Research on Variation in Bacteriology," Soc. Stud. Sci., 1987, 17, 657-87. While Mendelsohn has claimed that Burnet himself "left out half the story by attributing the emergence of a new 'ecological point of view' to the ascendance of other scientists over" medical bacteriologists, I show that Burnet himself was indebted to these medical researchers.
-
(1987)
Soc. Stud. Sci.
, vol.17
, pp. 657-687
-
-
Amsterdamska, O.1
-
41
-
-
33749012092
-
Charles Creighton, the Man and His Work
-
2 vols. London: Cass
-
E. Ashworth Underwood described Charles Creighton's skeptical attitude to the germ theory in the context of his academic activities as a medical researcher and a "natural historian" of infectious disease. For a brief biography of Creighton, see E. Ashworth Underwood, "Charles Creighton, The Man and His Work," in A History of Epidemics in Britain with Additional Material by D. E. C. Eversley, E. Ashworth Underwood, and Lynda Ovenall, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (London: Cass, 1965), I, 43-135.
-
(1965)
A History of Epidemics in Britain with Additional Material by D. E. C. Eversley, E. Ashworth Underwood, and Lynda Ovenall, 2nd Ed.
, vol.1
, pp. 43-135
-
-
Underwood, E.A.1
-
46
-
-
2542546757
-
-
For an excellent review of Metchnikoff 's theory, see Tauber, Immune Self, 15-26;
-
Immune Self
, pp. 15-26
-
-
Tauber1
-
47
-
-
0025444567
-
The Idea of Immunity: Metchnikoff's Metaphysics and Science
-
Leon Chernyak and Alfred I. Tauber, "The Idea of Immunity: Metchnikoff's Metaphysics and Science," J. Hist. Biol., 1990, 23, 187-249;
-
(1990)
J. Hist. Biol.
, vol.23
, pp. 187-249
-
-
Chernyak, L.1
Tauber, A.I.2
-
49
-
-
0030640299
-
Introduction to Special Issue on Rethinking the Reception of the Germ Theory of Disease: Comparative Perspectives
-
Nancy J. Tomes and John Harley Warner, "Introduction to Special Issue on Rethinking the Reception of the Germ Theory of Disease: Comparative Perspectives," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1997, 52, 7-16.
-
(1997)
J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci.
, vol.52
, pp. 7-16
-
-
Tomes, N.J.1
Warner, J.H.2
-
50
-
-
0346042325
-
American Attitudes toward the Germ Theory of Disease: Phyllis Allen Richmond Revisited
-
See other articles published in the same volume, especially Nancy J. Tomes, "American Attitudes toward the Germ Theory of Disease: Phyllis Allen Richmond Revisited," J. Hist Med. Allied Sci., 1997, 52, 17-50;
-
(1997)
J. Hist Med. Allied Sci.
, vol.52
, pp. 17-50
-
-
Tomes, N.J.1
-
51
-
-
0030642157
-
The Cattle Plague of 1865 and the Reception of 'The Germ Theory' in Mid-Victorian Britain
-
Terrie M. Romano, "The Cattle Plague of 1865 and the Reception of 'The Germ Theory' in Mid-Victorian Britain," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1997, 52, 51-80.
-
(1997)
J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci.
, vol.52
, pp. 51-80
-
-
Romano, T.M.1
-
58
-
-
0007632859
-
'Smooth-Rough' Variation in Bacteria in its Relation to Bacteriophage
-
His dissertation was published as F. M. Burnet, "'Smooth-Rough' Variation in Bacteria in its Relation to Bacteriophage," J. Pathol. Bacteriol., 1929, 32, 15-42.
-
(1929)
J. Pathol. Bacteriol.
, vol.32
, pp. 15-42
-
-
Burnet, F.M.1
-
59
-
-
33749005757
-
Lysogenicity as a Normal Function of Certain Salmonella Strains
-
Frank Macfarlane Burnet, "Lysogenicity as a Normal Function of Certain Salmonella Strains," J. Pathol. Bacteriol., 1932, 35, 861;
-
(1932)
J. Pathol. Bacteriol.
, vol.35
, pp. 861
-
-
Burnet, F.M.1
-
60
-
-
50249196691
-
Recent Work on the Biological Nature of Bacteriophages
-
Burnet, "Recent Work on the Biological Nature of Bacteriophages," Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg., 1933, 26, 413.
-
(1933)
Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg.
, vol.26
, pp. 413
-
-
Burnet1
-
62
-
-
0000499555
-
Herpes Simplex: A New Point of View
-
Frank Macfarlane Burnet, "Herpes Simplex: A New Point of View," Med. J. Aust., 1939, 1, 642;
-
(1939)
Med. J. Aust.
, vol.1
, pp. 642
-
-
Burnet, F.M.1
-
63
-
-
8944256666
-
The Rickettsial Diseases in Australia
-
"The Rickettsial Diseases in Australia," Med. J. Aust., 1942, 2, 130.
-
(1942)
Med. J. Aust.
, vol.2
, pp. 130
-
-
-
65
-
-
0020667780
-
Darwin and the Doctors: Evolution, Diathesis, and Germs in 19th-Century Britain
-
Medical historian W. F. Bynum suggested that Darwin's theory influenced many British physicians during the nineteenth century. They gradually began to consider, during their theorizations on the nature of disease, the evolution of both infectious diseases and the constitution of humans that responded to germs. William F. Bynum, "Darwin and the Doctors: Evolution, Diathesis, and Germs in 19th-Century Britain," Gesnerus, 1983, 40, 43-53.
-
(1983)
Gesnerus
, vol.40
, pp. 43-53
-
-
Bynum, W.F.1
-
80
-
-
33749024558
-
-
Indeed, Burnet emphasized that the number of bacteria should be sufficient to replicate the human disease in experimental animals. See Burnet, Biological Aspects, Ibid., 143.
-
Biological Aspects
, pp. 143
-
-
Burnet1
-
82
-
-
85018864737
-
Über die Giftcomponenten des Diphtherie-Toxins
-
"Toxoid," which was named by Paul Ehrlich, is an antigen that does not have toxicity without losing its antibody-binding ability. Paul Ehrlich, "Über die Giftcomponenten des Diphtherie-Toxins," Berl. klin. Wochenschr. (1903),
-
(1903)
Berl. Klin. Wochenschr.
-
-
Ehrlich, P.1
-
83
-
-
33749011531
-
-
reprinted ed. F. Himmelweit, Martha Marquardt, and Henry Dale, 3 vols. London: Pergamon Press
-
reprinted in The Collected Papers of Paul Ehrlich, ed. F. Himmelweit, Martha Marquardt, and Henry Dale, 3 vols. (London: Pergamon Press, 1957), II, 351.
-
(1957)
The Collected Papers of Paul Ehrlich
, vol.2
, pp. 351
-
-
-
84
-
-
0040045531
-
The Tools of the Discipline: Standards, Models, and Measures in the Affinity/Avidity Controversy in Immunology
-
ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press
-
Booster effect, which was often neglected by chemical immunologists, was first observed and investigated by clinicians who used antisera for therapeutic purposes. We can trace Burnet's interest in booster effect to his clinical experience at the Royal Melbourne Hospital. On the "affinity/avidity controversy," see Peter Keating, Alberto Cambrosio, and Michael Mackenzie, "The Tools of the Discipline: Standards, Models, and Measures in the Affinity/Avidity Controversy in Immunology," in The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in Twentieth-Century Life Sciences, ed. Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), 312-54.
-
(1992)
The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in Twentieth-Century Life Sciences
, pp. 312-354
-
-
Keating, P.1
Cambrosio, A.2
Mackenzie, M.3
-
86
-
-
0004229008
-
-
Melbourne: Macmillan and Company
-
F. M. Burnet, Mavis Freeman, A. V. Jackson, and Dora Lush, The Production of Antibodies: A Review and a Theoretical Discussion (Melbourne: Macmillan and Company, 1941), 9-16, 22-24.
-
(1941)
The Production of Antibodies: A Review and a Theoretical Discussion
, pp. 9-16
-
-
Burnet, F.M.1
Freeman, M.2
Jackson, A.V.3
Lush, D.4
-
88
-
-
33749031649
-
Frank Macfarlane Burnet: Virologist, Immunologist, and Nobel Prize Winner
-
Gordon L. Ada, "Frank Macfarlane Burnet: Virologist, Immunologist, and Nobel Prize Winner," Med. J. Aust., 1939, 1, 259.
-
(1939)
Med. J. Aust.
, vol.1
, pp. 259
-
-
Ada, G.L.1
-
101
-
-
0003975514
-
-
For Burnet's skeptical attitude toward chemical immunology, see Silverstein, History of Immunology, 288-95.
-
History of Immunology
, pp. 288-295
-
-
Silverstein1
-
106
-
-
84941522332
-
Chemische Untersuchungen des Präzipitates aus Hämoglobin und anti-Hämoglobin-Serum und Bemerkungen über die Natur der Antikörper
-
Friedrich Breinl and Felix Haurowitz, "Chemische Untersuchungen des Präzipitates aus Hämoglobin und anti-Hämoglobin-Serum und Bemerkungen über die Natur der Antikörper," Hoppe Seylers Z. Physiol. Chem., 1930, 192, 45-57;
-
(1930)
Hoppe Seylers Z. Physiol. Chem.
, vol.192
, pp. 45-57
-
-
Breinl, F.1
Haurowitz, F.2
-
107
-
-
0004441746
-
A Hypothetical Mechanism of Antibody Formation
-
Stuart Mudd, "A Hypothetical Mechanism of Antibody Formation," J. Immunol., 1932, 23, 423-27.
-
(1932)
J. Immunol.
, vol.23
, pp. 423-427
-
-
Mudd, S.1
-
117
-
-
33749010707
-
The Natural History of Tuberculosis
-
Frank Macfarlane Burnet, "The Natural History of Tuberculosis," Med. J. Aust., 1948, 1, 62.
-
(1948)
Med. J. Aust.
, vol.1
, pp. 62
-
-
Burnet, F.M.1
-
121
-
-
0003905432
-
-
Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press
-
Burnet's explanation on the cause of this decrease precedes McKeown's famous thesis on the reduction of the mortality rate in England and Wales. See Thomas McKeown, The Role of Medicine: Dream, Mirage or Nemesis? (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979).
-
(1979)
The Role of Medicine: Dream, Mirage or Nemesis?
-
-
McKeown, T.1
-
124
-
-
0021979944
-
Ignaz Semmelweis, Carl Mayrhofer, and the Rise of Germ Theory
-
Ignaz Semmelweis's argument that "decaying matter" was the sole cause of puerperal fever was accepted by the later advocates of the germ theory, who replaced "decaying matter" with "germs." On Semmelweis's causal concept of puerperal fever, see K. Codell Carter, "Ignaz Semmelweis, Carl Mayrhofer, and the Rise of Germ Theory," Med. His., 1985, 29, 33-53;
-
(1985)
Med. His.
, vol.29
, pp. 33-53
-
-
Carter, K.C.1
-
128
-
-
33749038085
-
Psittacosis in Australian Parrots
-
Frank Macfarlane Burnet, "Psittacosis in Australian Parrots," Med. J. Aust., 1934, 2, 743-46;
-
(1934)
Med. J. Aust.
, vol.2
, pp. 743-746
-
-
Burnet, F.M.1
-
129
-
-
0142099287
-
Psittacosis in the Developing Egg
-
Frank Macfarlane Burnet and Phyllis M. Rountree, "Psittacosis in the Developing Egg," J. Pathol. Bacteriol., 1935, 40, 471-81;
-
(1935)
J. Pathol. Bacteriol.
, vol.40
, pp. 471-481
-
-
Burnet, F.M.1
Rountree, P.M.2
-
130
-
-
33749024260
-
Human Psittacosis in Australia
-
Frank Macfarlane Burnet and Jean MacNamara, "Human Psittacosis in Australia," Med. J. Aust., 1936, 2, 84-88.
-
(1936)
Med. J. Aust.
, vol.2
, pp. 84-88
-
-
Burnet, F.M.1
MacNamara, J.2
-
131
-
-
33749017451
-
-
note
-
From the modern standpoint, the microbial agent responsible for psittacosis is a chlamydia rather than a virus.
-
-
-
-
132
-
-
33749028278
-
Inapparent Virus Infections, with Special Reference to Australian Examples
-
Frank Macfarlane Burnet, "Inapparent Virus Infections, with Special Reference to Australian Examples," Br. Med. J., 1936, 1, 101.
-
(1936)
Br. Med. J.
, vol.1
, pp. 101
-
-
Burnet, F.M.1
-
133
-
-
33748998295
-
Changes of Twenty-Five Years in the Outlook on Infectious Disease
-
See also Frank Macfarlane Burnet, "Changes of Twenty-Five Years in the Outlook on Infectious Disease," Med. J. Aust., 1939, 2, 25;
-
(1939)
Med. J. Aust.
, vol.2
, pp. 25
-
-
Burnet, F.M.1
-
137
-
-
33749024558
-
-
Curiously, Burnet never attempted to offer any mechanism to explain the relationship of environmental conditions to the development of symptoms. Burnet, Biological Aspects, 23;
-
Biological Aspects
, pp. 23
-
-
Burnet1
-
143
-
-
33749015024
-
Endemic Typhus in North Queensland
-
See for example R. Y. Mathew, "Endemic Typhus in North Queensland," Med. J. Aust., 1938, 2, 371-77;
-
(1938)
Med. J. Aust.
, vol.2
, pp. 371-377
-
-
Mathew, R.Y.1
-
144
-
-
0000984226
-
'Q' Fever, a New Fever Entity: Clinical Features, Diagnosis and Laboratory Investigation
-
E. H. Derrick, "'Q' Fever, a New Fever Entity: Clinical Features, Diagnosis and Laboratory Investigation," Med. J. Aust., 1937, 2, 281-99;
-
(1937)
Med. J. Aust.
, vol.2
, pp. 281-299
-
-
Derrick, E.H.1
-
145
-
-
0001091162
-
Experimental Studies of the Virus of 'Q' Fever
-
Frank Macfarlane Burnet and Mavis Freeman, "Experimental Studies of the Virus of 'Q' Fever," Med. J. Aust., 1937, 2, 299-305.
-
(1937)
Med. J. Aust.
, vol.2
, pp. 299-305
-
-
Burnet, F.M.1
Freeman, M.2
-
147
-
-
84895407939
-
The Biological Approach to Infectious Disease
-
See also Frank Macfarlane Burnet, "The Biological Approach to Infectious Disease," Med. J. Aust., 1941, 2, 611.
-
(1941)
Med. J. Aust.
, vol.2
, pp. 611
-
-
Burnet, F.M.1
-
148
-
-
33749024558
-
-
He arrived at the same conclusion on sleeping sickness. See Burnet, Biological Aspects, 174.
-
Biological Aspects
, pp. 174
-
-
Burnet1
-
158
-
-
33749005758
-
Epidemiology Today
-
Burnet, "Epidemiology Today," Med. J. Aust., 1946, 2, 828.
-
(1946)
Med. J. Aust.
, vol.2
, pp. 828
-
-
Burnet1
-
171
-
-
0034151276
-
Invisible Enemies: Bacteriology and the Language of Politics in Imperial Germany
-
On the popular metaphor, see for example Christoph Gradmann, "Invisible Enemies: Bacteriology and the Language of Politics in Imperial Germany," Sci. Context, 2000, 13, 9-30;
-
(2000)
Sci. Context
, vol.13
, pp. 9-30
-
-
Gradmann, C.1
-
172
-
-
0003883609
-
-
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press
-
Nancy J. Tomes, The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women, and the Microbe in American Life (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), 124.
-
(1998)
The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women, and the Microbe in American Life
, pp. 124
-
-
Tomes, N.J.1
-
173
-
-
0004024003
-
-
Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press
-
Perhaps the title of Winslow's classical monograph also represents the popular notion of germs and infectious diseases. See Charles-Edward Amory Winslow, The Conquest of Epidemic Disease: A Chapter in the History of Ideas (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1943).
-
(1943)
The Conquest of Epidemic Disease: A Chapter in the History of Ideas
-
-
Winslow, C.-E.A.1
-
176
-
-
0030094003
-
The Role of Virus in Origin-of-Life Theorizing
-
Burnet cited Robert Green and Patrick Laidlaw's "retrograde evolution theory of the virus" for this argument. For the meaning of this theory in contemporary debates on the nature of the virus, see Scott Podolsky, "The Role of Virus in Origin-of-Life Theorizing," J. Hist. Biol., 1996, 29, 79-126.
-
(1996)
J. Hist. Biol.
, vol.29
, pp. 79-126
-
-
Podolsky, S.1
-
185
-
-
33748998582
-
Some Borderlands of Microbiology, Genetics and Biochemistry
-
Frank Macfarlane Burnet, "Some Borderlands of Microbiology, Genetics and Biochemistry," Aust. J. Sci., 1944, 7, 2-4;
-
(1944)
Aust. J. Sci.
, vol.7
, pp. 2-4
-
-
Burnet, F.M.1
-
189
-
-
25844450011
-
-
Burnet, Virus as Organism, 36. Italics are my emphasis. But Burnet did not explain why the occurrence of virus diseases was rarely related to the genetic constitution of the host.
-
Virus As Organism
, pp. 36
-
-
Burnet1
-
191
-
-
0001430429
-
Gene and Cytoplasm. I. The Determination and Inheritance of the Killer Character in Variety 4 of Paramecium Aurelia
-
Tracy M. Sonneborn, "Gene and Cytoplasm. I. The Determination and Inheritance of the Killer Character in Variety 4 of Paramecium Aurelia," Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1943, 29, 329-38;
-
(1943)
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
, vol.29
, pp. 329-338
-
-
Sonneborn, T.M.1
-
192
-
-
0001430429
-
Genes and Cytoplasm. II. The Bearing of the Determination and Inheritance of Characters in Paramecium Aurelia on the Problems of Cytoplasmic Inheritance, Pneumococcus Transformations, Mutations and Development
-
Sonneborn, "Genes and Cytoplasm. II. The Bearing of the Determination and Inheritance of Characters in Paramecium Aurelia on the Problems of Cytoplasmic Inheritance, Pneumococcus Transformations, Mutations and Development," Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1943, 29, 338-43;
-
(1943)
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
, vol.29
, pp. 338-343
-
-
Sonneborn1
-
193
-
-
4043108215
-
Maintenance and Increase of a Genetic Character by a Substrate- Cytoplasmic Interaction in the Absence of the Specific Gene
-
Sol Spiegelman, Carl C. Lindegren, and Gertrude Lindegren, "Maintenance and Increase of a Genetic Character by a Substrate-Cytoplasmic Interaction in the Absence of the Specific Gene," Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1945, 31, 95-102.
-
(1945)
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
, vol.31
, pp. 95-102
-
-
Spiegelman, S.1
Lindegren, C.C.2
Lindegren, G.3
-
195
-
-
33749034005
-
-
Sonneborn's "killer trait" of paramecium, which had been regarded as a cytoplasmic hereditary entity, required the presence of the nuclear gene "K" to replicate itself in the cytoplasm. Likewise, Spiegelman's and the Lindegrens' melibiozymase had to be made initially from nucleus to function as a self-replicating element in the cytoplasm. See Sonneborn, "Gene and Cytoplasm. II," 340;
-
Gene and Cytoplasm. II
, pp. 340
-
-
Sonneborn1
-
197
-
-
33748994923
-
The 'Cytogenetics' of Black and White Guinea Pig Skin
-
Therefore, the supporters of cytoplasmic inheritance usually did not call their cytoplasmic entities "genes." Whenever they did, they always used quotation marks around the word. See for example Rupert E. Billingham and Peter B. Medawar, "The 'Cytogenetics' of Black and White Guinea Pig Skin," Nature, 1947, 159, 116.
-
(1947)
Nature
, vol.159
, pp. 116
-
-
Billingham, R.E.1
Medawar, P.B.2
-
198
-
-
33749036393
-
Genes, Cytoplasm, and Environment in Paramecium
-
See also Sonneborn, "Genes, Cytoplasm, and Environment in Paramecium," Sci. Mon., 1948, 67, 156.
-
(1948)
Sci. Mon.
, vol.67
, pp. 156
-
-
Sonneborn1
-
199
-
-
33749022860
-
Discussion
-
See for example "Discussion," Ann. Mo. Bot. Garden, 1945, 32, 251-63.
-
(1945)
Ann. Mo. Bot. Garden
, vol.32
, pp. 251-263
-
-
-
201
-
-
33748993244
-
Genes and Biological Enigmas
-
ed. George Baitsell New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press
-
Beadle also pointed out that cytoplasmic factors had only a limited degree of autonomy and ultimately were controlled by nuclear genes. See Beadle, "Genes and Biological Enigmas," in Science in Progress, Sixth Series, ed. George Baitsell (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1949), 232.
-
(1949)
Science in Progress, Sixth Series
, pp. 232
-
-
Beadle1
-
202
-
-
0010972801
-
Genetics and Immunology
-
Frank Macfarlane Burnet and Frank Fenner, "Genetics and Immunology," Heredity, 1948, 2, 290.
-
(1948)
Heredity
, vol.2
, pp. 290
-
-
Burnet, F.M.1
Fenner, F.2
-
203
-
-
33749013959
-
Antibody Production in the Light of Recent Genetic Theory
-
Frank Macfarlane Burnet, "Antibody Production in the Light of Recent Genetic Theory," Aust. J. Sci., 1946, 8, 145.
-
(1946)
Aust. J. Sci.
, vol.8
, pp. 145
-
-
Burnet, F.M.1
-
204
-
-
0000081893
-
The Physiology and Genetic Significance of Enzymatic Adaptation
-
Sol Spiegelman, "The Physiology and Genetic Significance of Enzymatic Adaptation," Ann. Mo. Bot. Garden, 1945, 32, 160.
-
(1945)
Ann. Mo. Bot. Garden
, vol.32
, pp. 160
-
-
Spiegelman, S.1
-
205
-
-
85086690103
-
The Basis of Allergic Disease
-
Frank Macfarlane Burnet, "The Basis of Allergic Disease," Med. J. Aust., 1948, 1, 31.
-
(1948)
Med. J. Aust.
, vol.1
, pp. 31
-
-
Burnet, F.M.1
-
207
-
-
85012708269
-
Decomposition of the Capsular Polysaccharide of Pneumococcus Type III by a Bacterial Enzyme
-
See the papers written by Dubos, Avery, Bergmann, and Niemann. René Dubos and Oswald T. Avery, "Decomposition of the Capsular Polysaccharide of Pneumococcus Type III by a Bacterial Enzyme," J. Exp. Med., 1931, 54, 51-71;
-
(1931)
J. Exp. Med.
, vol.54
, pp. 51-71
-
-
Dubos, R.1
Avery, O.T.2
-
208
-
-
0345681149
-
Newer Biological Aspects of Protein Chemistry
-
Max Bergmann and Carl Niemann, "Newer Biological Aspects of Protein Chemistry," Science, 1937, 86, 187-90.
-
(1937)
Science
, vol.86
, pp. 187-190
-
-
Bergmann, M.1
Niemann, C.2
-
213
-
-
1842334036
-
Concepts of Organization: The Leverage of Ciliate Protozoa
-
ed. Scott F. Gilbert Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press
-
Jan Sapp, "Concepts of Organization: The Leverage of Ciliate Protozoa," in A Conceptual History of Embryology, ed. Scott F. Gilbert (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 237-44.
-
(1991)
A Conceptual History of Embryology
, pp. 237-244
-
-
Sapp, J.1
-
214
-
-
0001884328
-
Embryology and the Modern Synthesis in Evolutionary Theory
-
ed. Ernst Mayr and William B. Provine Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press
-
See also Viktor Hamburger, "Embryology and the Modern Synthesis in Evolutionary Theory," in The Evolutionary Synthesis: Perspectives on the Unification of Biology, ed. Ernst Mayr and William B. Provine (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980), 100-3.
-
(1980)
The Evolutionary Synthesis: Perspectives on the Unification of Biology
, pp. 100-103
-
-
Hamburger, V.1
-
215
-
-
0003740342
-
-
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press
-
Evelyn Fox Keller argued that nuclear genes were tacitly endowed with a "foresight that would enable them to direct some cells of the embryo in one way, some in another," although a direct proof of this "foresight" was not possible. Evelyn Fox Keller, Making Sense of Life: Explaining Biological Development with Models, Metaphors, and Machines (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002), 133-34.
-
(2002)
Making Sense of Life: Explaining Biological Development with Models, Metaphors, and Machines
, pp. 133-134
-
-
Keller, E.F.1
-
217
-
-
33749036393
-
Genes, Cytoplasm, and Environment in Paramecium
-
Tracy M. Sonneborn, "Genes, Cytoplasm, and Environment in Paramecium," Sci. Mon., 1948, 67, 154, 160;
-
(1948)
Sci. Mon.
, vol.67
, pp. 154
-
-
Sonneborn, T.M.1
-
219
-
-
0007353479
-
Genes and Nucleoproteins in the Synthesis of Enzymes
-
Sol Spiegelman and M. D. Kamen, "Genes and Nucleoproteins in the Synthesis of Enzymes," Science, 1946, 104, 584.
-
(1946)
Science
, vol.104
, pp. 584
-
-
Spiegelman, S.1
Kamen, M.D.2
-
220
-
-
84885609850
-
-
"Discussion," 256;
-
Discussion
, pp. 256
-
-
-
221
-
-
33748996896
-
Biochemical Genetics
-
Beadle, "Biochemical Genetics," Chem. Rev., 1945, 37, 84.
-
(1945)
Chem. Rev.
, vol.37
, pp. 84
-
-
Beadle1
-
228
-
-
33749024558
-
-
Burnet, Biological Aspects, 199. Ibid. Strangely, Burnet did not mention the Bundaberg tragedy, where older children were more resistant to infection.
-
Biological Aspects
, pp. 199
-
-
Burnet1
-
231
-
-
33749006981
-
-
In the case of tuberculosis, see Burnet, "Natural History of Tuberculosis," 59-60. Here, Burnet was not very specific about the distinction between "morbidity" and "case fatality." I suspect that Burnet could not make this distinction because of the "healthy carrier" problem. If there were many healthy carriers of an infectious disease who were not sick, or who showed only mild symptoms, how then could one measure the morbidity/case fatality of that disease?
-
Natural History of Tuberculosis
, pp. 59-60
-
-
Burnet1
-
235
-
-
33749028821
-
The Epidemiology of Poliomyelitis, with Special Reference to the Victorian Epidemic of 1937-38
-
Frank Macfarlane Burnet, "The Epidemiology of Poliomyelitis, with Special Reference to the Victorian Epidemic of 1937-38," Med. J. Aust., 1940, 1, 328-29.
-
(1940)
Med. J. Aust.
, vol.1
, pp. 328-329
-
-
Burnet, F.M.1
-
240
-
-
0012826410
-
-
Washington: Government Printing Office
-
Theobald Smith and F. L. Kilborne, Investigations into the Nature, Causation, and Prevention of Texas or Southern Cattle Fever (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1893), 132, 148.
-
(1893)
Investigations into the Nature, Causation, and Prevention of Texas or Southern Cattle Fever
, pp. 132
-
-
Smith, T.1
Kilborne, F.L.2
-
254
-
-
0000970685
-
Transplantability of Tissues to the Embryo of Foreign Species: Its Bearing on Questions of Tissue Specificity and Tumor Immunity
-
James B. Murphy, "Transplantability of Tissues to the Embryo of Foreign Species: Its Bearing on Questions of Tissue Specificity and Tumor Immunity," J. Exp. Med., 1913, 17, 482-92.
-
(1913)
J. Exp. Med.
, vol.17
, pp. 482-492
-
-
Murphy, J.B.1
-
257
-
-
33745163496
-
The Propagation of the Virus of Infectious Laryngo-tracheitis on the Chorio-allantoic Membrane of the Developing Egg
-
His first experiment using chick embryos was published in 1934. Burnet, "The Propagation of the Virus of Infectious Laryngo-tracheitis on the Chorio-allantoic Membrane of the Developing Egg," Br. J. Exp. Pathol., 1934, 15, 52-55.
-
(1934)
Br. J. Exp. Pathol.
, vol.15
, pp. 52-55
-
-
Burnet1
-
262
-
-
85025395377
-
The Epidemiology of Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis in White Mice
-
Erich Traub, "The Epidemiology of Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis in White Mice," J. Exp. Med., 1936, 64, 183-200;
-
(1936)
J. Exp. Med.
, vol.64
, pp. 183-200
-
-
Traub, E.1
-
263
-
-
85019277983
-
Factors Influencing the Persistence of Choriomeningitis Virus in the Blood of Mice after Clinical Recovery
-
Traub, "Factors Influencing the Persistence of Choriomeningitis Virus in the Blood of Mice after Clinical Recovery," J. Exp. Med., 1938, 68, 229-50;
-
(1938)
J. Exp. Med.
, vol.68
, pp. 229-250
-
-
Traub1
-
264
-
-
85025411481
-
Epidemiology of Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis in a Mouse Stock Observed for Four Years
-
Traub, "Epidemiology of Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis in a Mouse Stock Observed for Four Years," J. Exp. Med., 1939, 69, 801-17.
-
(1939)
J. Exp. Med.
, vol.69
, pp. 801-817
-
-
Traub1
-
265
-
-
0000658958
-
Immunogenetic Consequences of Vascular Anastomoses between Bovine Twins
-
Ray D. Owen, "Immunogenetic Consequences of Vascular Anastomoses between Bovine Twins," Science, 1945, 102, 400-401.
-
(1945)
Science
, vol.102
, pp. 400-401
-
-
Owen, R.D.1
-
276
-
-
33749021466
-
-
note
-
Of course, the virus and bacterium should not be very virulent to the host body, as could be seen in the example of the choriomeningitis virus or psittacosis virus.
-
-
-
-
283
-
-
33748996897
-
How Antibodies Are Made
-
Frank Macfarlane Burnet, "How Antibodies Are Made," Sci. Am., 1954, 191, 76.
-
(1954)
Sci. Am.
, vol.191
, pp. 76
-
-
Burnet, F.M.1
-
284
-
-
0004229008
-
-
This sentence might mean that Burnet did not really believe that the cells of extrinsic origin could be a genuine part of the host's "self." But he did not explicitly call them "foreign," either. We can see his ambivalence from the sentences in which he used quotation marks around the word, "foreign." See Burnet and Fenner, Production of Antibodies (1949), 76;
-
(1949)
Production of Antibodies
, pp. 76
-
-
Burnet1
Fenner2
-
286
-
-
0003435987
-
-
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press
-
Although these diseases had existed since time immemorial, they emerged as major health problems only in the twentieth century. For the case of cancer, see James T. Patterson, The Dread Disease: Cancer and Modern American Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987).
-
(1987)
The Dread Disease: Cancer and Modern American Culture
-
-
Patterson, J.T.1
-
287
-
-
33749009392
-
-
Although some people have warned that many traditional infectious diseases, which have become more powerful due to mutation and natural selection, will soon return to the Western world, there have been few instances of this occurring after the mid-twentieth century. Even SARS, which received widespread media attention as a serious threat to the modern world, killed fewer than fifty people in developed countries. See http://www.who.int/csr/sars/country/ table2004_04_21/en/index.html.
-
-
-
|