Children's health and social mobility

Future of Children

Volumn 16, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 151-173

  Case, Anne ^a,b   Paxson, Christina ^a  

^a PRINCETON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b Research Program in Development Studies   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT; ADULTHOOD; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CHILD HEALTH; CHILDHOOD; CHILDHOOD DISEASE; EDUCATION; EMPLOYMENT; ETHNOLOGY; GENERAL PRACTITIONER; HEALTH CARE; HEALTH CARE COST; HEALTH CARE QUALITY; HEALTH PROGRAM; HEALTH STATUS; HEALTH SURVEY; HUMAN; LOWEST INCOME GROUP; MALNUTRITION; MATERNAL NUTRITION; MEDICAL CARE; MEDICAL RESEARCH; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; NUTRITIONAL ASSESSMENT; PHYSICAL CAPACITY; PREGNANCY OUTCOME; PRENATAL CARE; PUBLIC HEALTH; REVIEW; SOCIAL CLASS; SOCIOECONOMICS; WELLBEING;

CHILD; CHILD WELFARE; EDUCATIONAL STATUS; HEALTH STATUS; HUMANS; SOCIAL MOBILITY; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 33748950266     PISSN: 10548289     EISSN: 15501558     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/foc.2006.0014     Document Type: Review

References (90)

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2. These estimates are based on a sample of 152,706 children with no missing health information who were living in families with annual incomes of between $5,000 and $125,000 (expressed in 2000 dollars). The graph shows results of nonparametric regressions of an indicator that the child was in excellent or very good health against income. Weights provided in the survey data were used. Note that children's health is generally reported by a parent, although in a small fraction of cases another adult in the household provided information. Children aged seventeen years could report on their own health. Results presented in figure 1 are very similar when health status is plotted against the log of income per adult equivalent. In addition, the results show the same patterns when we plot the fraction of children in "excellent, very good, or good" health against a measure of family income. Jianqing Fan, "Design-Adaptive Nonparametric Regression," Journal of the American Statistical Association 87 (1992): 998-1004.
3. Anne Case, Darren Lubotsky, and Christina Paxson, "Economic Status and Health in Childhood: The Origins of the Gradient," American Economic Review 92, no. 5 (2002): 1308-34.
4. Paul W. Newacheck and others, "Disparities in Adolescent Health and Health Care: Does Socioeconomic Status Matter?" Health Services Research 38, no. 5 (2003): 1235-52.
5. E. Goodman, "The Role of Socioeconomic Status Gradients in Explaining Differences in US Adolescents' Health," American Journal of Public Health 89, no. 10 (1999): 1522-28.
6. Case, Lubotsky, and Paxson, "Economic Status and Health in Childhood" (see note 3).
7. Anne Case and Christina Paxson, "Parental Behavior and Child Health," Health Affairs 21, no. 2 (2002): 164-78.
8. Janet Currie and Mark Stabile, "Socioeconomic Status and Health: Why Is the Relationship Stronger for Older Children?" American Economic Review 93, no. 5 (2004): 1813-23.
9. Although Hispanic children have worse global health status than white children at the same income levels, they have health outcomes that are as good as white children for several other health measures, including infant mortality and low birth weight.
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14. The NHIS designated one child from each family containing any children to be a "sample child," for whom more detailed health information was collected. Respondents were asked to provide birth weights of the sample children. The rates of low birth weight we cite are based on a sample of 86,402 children from birth to age seventeen.
15. The causal effect of prenatal care on infant health has, however, been questioned. We will return to this point.
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17. Healthy People 2010, 2nd ed., Ibid.
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20. Case, Lubotsky, and Paxson, "Economic Status and Health in Childhood" (see note 3).
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24. D. Wood, "Effect of Child and Family Poverty on Child Health in the United States," Pediatrics 112, no. 3, pt. 2 (2003): 707-11.
25. E. Goodman, "The Role of Socioeconomic Status Gradients in Explaining Differences in U.S. Adolescents' Health," American Journal of Public Health 89, no. 10 (1999): 1522-28.
26. J. M. Twenge and S. Nolen-Hoeksema, "Age, Gender, Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Birth Cohort Differences on the Children's Depression Inventory: A Meta-Analysis," Journal of Abnormal Psychology 111, no. 4 (2002): 578-88.
27. Case, Lubotsky, and Paxson, "Economic Status and Health in Childhood" (see note 3).
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31. Macias Gallegos and others, "Relationship between Glycemic Control, Ethnicity and Socioeconomic Status in Hispanic and White Non-Hispanic Youths with Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus," Pediatric Diabetes 4, no. l (2003): 19-23.
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34. Case, Lubotsky, and Paxson, "Economic Status and Health in Childhood" (see note 3).
35. A. R. Fertig, "Healthy Baby, Healthy Marriage? The Effect of Children's Health on Divorce," Working Paper (Princeton: Center for Health and Wellbeing, January 2005).
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37. Case, Lubotsky, and Paxson, "Economic Status and Health in Childhood" (see note 3).
38. It is also possible that adults in poor health are less likely to marry high-income partners. There is, however, little evidence on this issue.
39. See, for example, Duncan Thomas and others, "Iron Deficiency and the Well-Being of Older Adults: Early Results from a Randomized Nutrition Intervention," mimeo, University of California, Los Angeles (May 2003);
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42. Janet Currie and Rosemary Hyson, "Is the Impact of Health Shocks Cushioned by Socio-Economic Status? The Case of Low Birthweight," American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings 89, no. 2 (1999): 245-50;
43. Anne Case, Angela Fertig, and Christina Paxson, "The Lasting Impact of Childhood Health and Circumstance," Journal of Health Economics 24 (2005): 365-89.
44. Institute of Medicine, Clearing the Smoke: Assessing the Science Base for Tobacco Harm Reduction (Washington: National Academies Press, 2001).
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51. J. Currie, "U.S. Food and Nutrition Programs," in Means-Tested Transfer Programs in the United States, edited by Robert Moffitt (University of Chicago Press for the National Bureau of Economic Research, 2003), pp. 199-290.
52. Case, Fertig, and Paxson, "The Lasting Impact of Childhood Health and Circumstance" (see note 39).
53. Paul Gregg and Stephen Machin, "Child Development and Success or Failure in the Youth Labour Market," Discussion Paper 397 (London School of Economics and Political Science, Centre for Economic Performance, 1998).
54. Currie and Stabile, "Socioeconomic Status and Health" (see note 8).
55. B. Milton and others, "The Social and Economic Consequences of Childhood Asthma across the Lifecourse: A Systematic Review," Child Care, Health and Development 30, no. 6 (2004): 711-28.
56. M. G. Fowler, M. G. Davenport, and R. Garg, "School Functioning of U.S. Children with Asthma," Pediatrics 90, no. 6 (1992): 939-44.
57. Case, Lubotsky, and Paxson, "Economic Status and Health in Childhood" (see note 3).
58. C. L. Ogden and others, "Prevalence and Trends in Overweight among U.S. Children and Adolescents, 1999-2000," Journal of the American Medical Association 288, no. 14 (2002): 1728-32.
59. A. Datar, R. Sturm, and J. L. Magnabosco, "Childhood Overweight and Academic Performance: National Study of Kindergartners and First-Graders," Obesity Research 12, no. 1 (2004): 58-68.
60. D. J. P. Barker, "The Fetal Origins of Diseases of Old Age," European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 46 (Supp. 3) (1992): S3-9;
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63. Kathleen Maher Rasmussen, "The 'Fetal Origins' Hypothesis: Challenges and Opportunities for Maternal and Child Nutrition," Annual Review of Nutrition 21 (2001): 73-95.
64. Case, Fertig, and Paxson, "The Lasting Impact of Childhood Health and Circumstance" (see note 39).
65. R. C. Whitaker and others, "Predicting Obesity in Young Adulthood from Childhood and Parental Obesity," New England Journal of Medicine 337, no. 13 (1997): 869-73.
66. Anne Case and Angus Deaton, "Broken Down by Work and Sex: How Our Health Declines," Working Paper 9821 (Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, December 2003).
67. For recent discussions, see M. Marmot, "The Influence of Income on Health: Views of an Epidemiologist. Does Money Really Matter? Or Is It a Marker for Something Else?" Health Affairs. Project Hope 21, no. 2 (2002): 31-46;
68. and Angus Deaton, "Health, Inequality, and Economic Development," Journal of Economic Literature 41, no. 1 (2002): 113-58.
69. Currie and Madrian, "Health, Health Insurance and the Labor Market" (see note 38).
70. Case and Deaton, "Broken Down by Work and Sex" (see note 59).
71. John Cawley, "The Impact of Obesity on Wages," Journal of Human Resources 39, no. 2 (2004): 451-74;
72. D. Conley and R. Glauber, "Gender, Body Mass and Economic Status," Working Paper 11343 (Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, May 2005).
73. Janet Currie and Rosemary Hyson, "Is the Impact of Health Shocks Cushioned by Socio-Economic Status? The Case of Low Birthweight," American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings 89, no. 2 (1999): 245-50.
74. Case, Fertig, and Paxson, "The Lasting Impact of Childhood Health and Circumstance" (see note 39).
75. Case, Fertig, and Paxson, "The Lasting Impact of Childhood Health and Circumstance" (Ibid.
76. That is, the estimated effect of low birth weight on earnings of 4 percent multiplied by a 4 percentage point reduction in the rate of low birth weight, yielding a 0.16 percent increase in earnings on average.
77. Institute of Medicine, Preventing Low Birth Weight (Washington: National Academies Press, 1985).
78. Innovative programs have been introduced in some states. Evidence from these programs could change the terms of the debate in the next ten years.
79. G. R. Alexander and C. C. Korenbrot, "The Role of Prenatal Care in Preventing Low Birth Weight," Future of Children 5, no. 1 (1995): 103-20.
80. J. Currie and J. Gruber, "Public Health Insurance and Medical Treatment: The Equalizing Impact of the Medicaid Expansions," Journal of Public Economics 82 (2001): 63-89.
81. Janet Currie and J. Grogger, "Medicaid Expansions and Welfare Contractions: Offsetting Effects on Prenatal Care and Infant Health?" Journal of Health Economics 21, no. 2 (2002): 313-35.
82. J. Lumley and others, "Interventions for Promoting Smoking Cessation during Pregnancy," Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Online Update Software, no. 4: CD001055 (2004).
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89. Ted Joyce and Andrew Racine, "Chip Shots: Association between the State Children's Health Insurance Programs and Immunization Coverage and Delivery," Pediatrics 115, no. 5 (2005): 526-34.
90. Anne Case and Christina Paxson, "Mothers and Others: Who Invests in Children's Health?" Journal of Health Economics 20 (2001): 301-28.