Watching paint dry: Organic solvent syndrome in late-twentieth-century Britain

Medical History

Volumn 50, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 167-188

  Spurgeon, Anne ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

SOLVENT;

ADDICTION; ARTICLE; CHEMICAL INDUSTRY; CHEMICALLY INDUCED DISORDER; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HEALTH PERSONNEL ATTITUDE; HISTORY; HUMAN; MENTAL DISEASE; OCCUPATIONAL DISEASE; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH; POLITICS; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; SYNDROME; UNITED KINGDOM;

ATTITUDE OF HEALTH PERSONNEL; CHEMICAL INDUSTRY; GREAT BRITAIN; HEALTH POLICY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; MENTAL DISORDERS; OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH; POLITICS; SOLVENTS; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS; SYNDROME;

EID: 33748752804     PISSN: 00257273     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S002572730000973X     Document Type: Review

References (145)

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8. The name by which it is most commonly known, although it has different names in different countries, for example, "toxic solvent syndrome" and "psychoorganic syndrome", and "solvent related chronic toxic encephalopathy".
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30. Tests of intellectual functioning, used in Britain, originated in the psychometric work of Francis Galton. Francis Galton, Inquiries into human faculty and its development, London, Macmillan, 1883;
31. see also G C Bunn, 'Introduction', in G C Bunn, A D Lovie and G D Richards (eds), Psychology in Britain: historical essays and personal reflections, Leicester, BPS Books, 2001, pp. 1-29, on p. 2.
32. Use of tests in British occupational psychology began during the First World War to investigate industrial fatigue in munitions workers, with the aim of maximizing production, see Ministry of Munitions, Industrial fatigue and its causes, Health of Munitions Workers Committee, Memorandum No. 7, London, HMSO, 1916;
33. see also Sylvia Shimmin and Don Wallis, Fifty years of occupational psychology in Britain, Leicester, BPS Books, 1994, pp. 3-10.
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38. Hanninen, Risk Analysis, op. cit., note 24 above;
39. H Hanninen, L Eskelinen, K Husman and M Nurminen, 'Behavioral effects of long-term exposure to a mixture of organic solvents', Scand. J. Work Environ. Health, 1976, 2 (4): 240-55;
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41. H Hanninen, 'Psychological test batteries: new trends and developments', in R Gilioli, M G Cassitto, V Foà (eds), Neurobehavioral methods in occupational health, Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1983, pp. 123-9.
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44. A Spurgeon, The validity and interpretation of neurobehavioural data obtained in studies to investigate the neurotoxic effects of occupational exposure to mixtures of organic solvents, HSE Contract Research Report. 355/2001, Sudbury, Suffolk, USE Books, 2001, pp. 7-8.
45. A Spurgeon, The validity and interpretation of neurobehavioural data obtained in studies to investigate the neurotoxic effects of occupational exposure to mixtures of organic solvents, Ibid., pp. 17-18.
46. Similar (although not exactly the same) diagnostic criteria were agreed at two international workshops held in 1985. WHO/Nordic Council of Ministers Working Group, Chronic effects of organic solvents on the central nervous system and diagnostic criteria, Copenhagen, WHO, 1985;
47. E L Baker and A M Seppalainen, 'Human aspects of solvent neurobehavioral effects: report of the workshop session on clinical and epidemiological topics, Raleigh, North Carolina 1985', Neurotoxicology. 1986, 7: 43-56.
48. Triebig and Hallermann, Neurotoxicology. op. cit., note 8 above, p. 577.
49. For a discussion of the political context in Denmark, one of the prime movers in the promotion of organic solvent syndrome, see M Johansson and T Partanen, 'Role of trade unions in workplace health promotion'. Int. J. Health Serv., 2002, 32 (1): 179-93.
50. Triebig and Hallermann, Int. J. Health Serv., op. cit., note 8 above, p. 576.
51. Personal communication, conference delegate.
52. Hanninen, Int. J. Health Serv., op. cit., note 24 above;
53. Lindstrom, Int. J. Health Serv., op. cit., note 30 above;
54. O Axelson, M Hane and C Hogstedt, 'A case-referent study on neuropsychiatric disorders among workers exposed to solvents', Scand. J. Work Environ. Health, 1976, 2: 14-20;
55. H Hanninen, L Eskelinen, K Husman and M Nurminen, 'Behavioral effects of long-term exposure to a mixture of organic solvents', Scand. J. Work Environ. Health, 1976, 2: 240-55;
56. M Hane, O Axelson, J Blume, C Hogstedt, et al., Psychological function changes among house painters', Scand. J. Work Environ. Health, 1977, 3: 91-9.
57. Personal communication, occupational psychologist at LSHTM.
58. EMAS was formed in 1973 to conduct research and medical investigations. It was a successor to the Medical Services Division of the Department of Employment and published its first report in 1975. Employment and Medical Advisory Service: a report of the work of the Service for 1973 and 1974, London, HMSO, 1975.
59. N Cherry, B Rodgers, H Venables, HA Waldron, G G Wells, 'Acute behavioural effects of styrene exposure: further analysis', Br. J. Ind. Med., 1981, 38: 346-50.
60. N Cherry, H Hutchins, T Pace and H A Waldron, 'Neurobehavioural effects of repeated occupational exposure to toluene and paint solvents', Br. J. Ind. Med., 1985, 42 (5): 291-300.
61. N Cherry and H A Waldron (eds), The neuropsychological effects of solvent exposure: proceedings of a symposium held at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine 5-6 Apr. 1982, Havant, Hants, Colt Foundation, 1983.
62. The neuropsychological effects of solvent exposure: proceedings of a symposium held at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine 5-6 Apr. 1982, Ibid., p. 26.
63. See, for example, A Derickson. Black lung: anatomy of a public health disaster, Ithaca and London, Cornell University Press, 1998;
64. Geoffrey Tweedale, Magic mineral to killer dust: Turner & Newall and the asbestos hazard, Oxford University Press, 2000;
65. Christian Warren, Brush with death: a social history of lead poisoning, Baltimore, John Hopkins University Press, 2000;
66. R Bayer, 'Coal, lead, asbestos and HIV: the politics of regulating risk', J. Occup. Med., 1993, 35 (9): 898-901.
67. Linda Bryder, 'Tuberculosis, silicosis, and the slate industry in North Wales 1927-1939', in Paul Weindling (ed.), The social history of occupational health, London, Croom Helm, 1985, pp. 108-26.
68. Derickson, The social history of occupational health, op. cit., note 47 above, pp. 43-59.
69. See, for example, Elaine Showalter, Hystories: hysterical epidemics and modern culture, London, Picador, 1997.
70. Dembe, Hystories: hysterical epidemics and modern culture, op. cit., note 9 above, p. 99.
71. Richard Schilling, A challenging life: sixty years in occupational health, London, Canning Press, 1998, pp. 69-80.
72. British physicians have increasingly emphasized the predominance of psychosocial over physical factors in the development and maintenance of musculoskeletal disorders. This has been suggested as a factor in the significant reduction, since 1995, in awards of social security benefits for such conditions. See, J M Harrington, J Hancock, D Gompertz, A Spurgeon, 'Work-related upper limb pain syndromes -origins and management', Report on a research priorities workshop, hosted by the University of Birmingham, sponsored by the HSE, 10-11 October, 1995, pp. 8-11, http://www.hse.gov.uk/research/misc/ harrington.pdf;
73. Also, G Waddell, M Aylward and P Sawney, Back pain, incapacity for work and social security benefits, London, Royal Society of Medicine Press, 2002, pp. 183-5.
74. Deriving from the recommendations of the Dangerous Trades Committees of the 1880s, these diseases were arsenic, lead and phosphorus poisoning, and anthrax. In 1899 mercury poisoning was added.
75. This exception was anthrax (occurring in the woollen industries), which was established in a landmark case when the House of Lords ruled that the features of the disease (i.e. rapid and fatal, with little doubt of causation) were sufficient for it to be classified as an accident for the purposes of compensation. Brintons Ltd v Turvey, AC 230, 14 April 1905.
76. Ankylostomiasis, a form of hookworm which occurred in Cornish tin miners.
77. Tim Carter, 'The biology of occupational disease and the pace of prevention: an historical study of UK control measures'. Policy and Practice in Health and Safety, 2003, 1 (2): 83-96.
78. See Roy Porter's The greatest benefit to mankind: a medical history of humanity from Antiquity to the present, London, HarperCollins, 1997, p. 576, for the discovery of various cancer-causing agents during the early twentieth century; pp. 579-80, for the recognition of the contribution of smoking to lung cancer by Bradford-Hill and Doll in 1951; pp. 585-6, for the understanding of various contributors to coronary heart disease following the identification of cholesterol by Brown and Goldstein in the late 1960s.
79. J Malcolm Harrington, 'Compensation schemes for industrial injuries and diseases', in P J Baxter, P H Adams, T-C Aw, A Cockcroft and J M Harrington (eds), Hunter's diseases of occupations, 9th ed., London, Arnold, 2000, pp. 37-42.
80. For a discussion of these factors, see University of Birmingham, Institute of Occupational Health, Occupational exposure limits: criteria for the qualitative evaluation of human neurobehavioural studies of neurotoxicity, European Commission, Employment and Social Affairs, Health and Safety at Work series, Report EUR 17390 EN, Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1997, pp 22-3.
81. A L Cochrane, Effectiveness and efficiency: random reflections on health services, London, Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust, 1972.
82. A L Cochrane, 'A medical scientist's view of screening', Public Health, 1967, 81: 207-13;
83. A L Cochrane and P C Elwood, 'Screening - the case against it', Medical Officer, 1969, 71: 53-7. By the late 1960s Cochrane was already renowned for his epidemiological research on pneumoconiosis in Welsh miners, which he had begun in the 1940s.
84. Cherry and Waldron (eds), Medical Officer, op. cit., note 45 above, p. 28.
85. Medical Officer, Ibid., p. 28.
86. In the autumn of 1987 the HSE awarded a contract to the University of Birmingham to investigate the neurobehavioural effects of long-term exposure to organic solvents. A Spurgeon, C N Gray, J Sims, I A Calvert, et al., 'Neurobehavioral effects of long-term occupational exposure to organic solvents: two comparable studies', Am. J. Ind Med., 1992, 22: 325-35.
87. Triebig and Hallermann, Am. J. Ind Med., op. cit., note 8 above, p. 576.
88. WHO/Nordic Council of Ministers, Am. J. Ind Med., op. cit., note 35 above;
89. Baker and Seppalainen, Am. J. Ind Med., op. cit., note 35 above.
90. Personal communication. Director of Medical Services, USE.
91. S Bowden and G Tweedale, 'Mondays without dread: the trade union response to byssinosis in the Lancashire cotton industry in the twentieth century', Soc. Hist. Med., 2003, 16: 79-95;
92. A J McIvor, A history of work in Britain, Basingstoke, Palgrave, 2001, pp. 111-17, 200-40.
93. NotabIy Alfred Blyton and Vie Feather.
94. Notably Sheila McKecknie and David Gee.
95. Kenneth O Morgan, The people's peace: British history 1945-1990, Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 397-433.
96. Kenneth O Morgan, The people's peace: British history 1945-1990, Ibid., p. 450. Union membership fell from over 13 million in 1980 to under 10 million in 1983.
97. Johansson and Partanen, The people's peace: British history 1945-1990, op. cit., note 37 above, pp. 180-1.
98. This is well illustrated by the recognition of pneumoconiosis as a compensable disease in British miners in 1943. Similar recognition did not take place in the United States until 1969. In the early 1940s, British miners, unlike their American counterparts, were employed in a nationalized industry with a powerful union. Derickson, The people's peace: British history 1945-1990, op. cit., note 47 above pp. 121-2, 151-61.
99. In 1984 there were 232.6 fatal or major injuries per 100,000 employees in the construction industry, compared with 87.4 per 100,000 employees in manufacturing; Health and safety statistics, London, HMSO, 1985.
100. Circular received by the Director of Medical Services, HSE, from the Health Protection Committee of CEFIC, 'Re: Danish painter's syndrome', 2 Dec, 1985.
101. P Grasso, M Sharratt, D M Davies and D Irvine, 'Neurophysiological and psychological disorders and occupational exposure to organic solvents', Food Chem. Toxicol., 1984, 22 (10): 19-52.
102. For a review of forty-five studies, see Spurgeon, Food Chem. Toxicol., op. cit., note 33 above.
103. These were held at HSE headquarters in Nov. 1985, Nov. 1986 and April 1987. Personal communication from a member of the HSE's Advisory Committee on Toxic Substances.
104. Ibid., April 1987. A consultant psychiatrist was appointed as Senior Employment Medical Advisor for Mental Health in 1973;
105. Employment Medical Advisory Service report, 1975-6, London, HMSO, 1978.
106. Spurgeon, et al., Employment Medical Advisory Service report, 1975-6, op. cit., note 65 above.
107. A Spurgeon, D C Glass, I A Calvert, M Cunningham-Hill, et al., 'Investigation of dose-related neurobehavioural effects in paintmakers exposed to low levels of solvents', Occup. Environ. Med., 1994, 51: 626-30.
108. R Stephens and P Barker, 'The role of human neurobehavioural tests in regulatory activity on chemicals', Occup. Environ. Med., 1998, 55: 210-14.
109. R Stephens and P Barker, Occup. Environ. Med., Ibid., p. 213.
110. R Stephens and P Barker, Occup. Environ. Med., Ibid., pp. 213-14.
111. R Stephens, A Spurgeon, J Beach, I A Calvert, et al., 'Neuropsychological effects of long-term exposure to organophosphates in sheep dip', Lancet, 1995, 345: 1135-38.
112. Angela Browning was interviewed on Channel 4 News in Feb. 1995 about the problem of OP poisoning among sheep farmers.
113. For example, two recent histories of lead poisoning mention psychological tests only briefly in the context of childhood poisoning and IQ tests. Markowitz and Rosner, Lancet, op. cit., note 23 above, pp. 122-3, 135-6;
114. Warren, Lancet, op. cit., note 47 above, p. 148. However, early concerns about low level lead exposure were based almost exclusively on neurobehavioural data.
115. See, for example, R G Feldman, N L Ricks, E L Baker, 'Neuropsychological effects of industrial toxins: a review', Am. J. Ind. Med., 1980, 1: 211-27;
116. also, B Weiss, 'Behavioral toxicology and environmental health science'. Am. Psychol., 1983, 38: 1174-87.
117. For example, for the effects of low-level methylmercury exposure, see Crump, et al., Am. Psychol., op. cit., note 29 above.
118. For a discussion of other syndromes, see D E Hartman, 'Neuropsychological toxicology: identification and assessment of neurotoxic syndromes', Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol., 1987, 2 (1): 45-65.
119. Two rare examples of published disagreement with the official Danish position can be found in E O Errebro-Knudsen and F Olsen, 'Organic solvents and presenile dementia (the painters' syndrome). A critical review of the Danish literature', Sci. Total Environ., 1986, 48 (1-2): 45-67;
120. A Gade, E L Mortensen, P Bruhn, ' "Chronic painter's syndrome": a reanalysis of psychological test data in a group of diagnosed cases, based on comparisons with matched controls', Acta Neurol. Scand., 1988, 77 (4): 293-306.
121. P R Lees-Haley and C W Williams, 'Neurotoxicity of chronic low-dose exposure to organic solvents: a skeptical review', J. Clin. Psychol., 1997, 53 (7): 699-712.
122. This was enshrined in the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970.
123. Weiss, J. Clin. Psychol., op. cit., note 89 above, p. 1180.
124. Shimmin and Wallis, J. Clin. Psychol., op. cit., note 25 above, pp. 3-6, 98-101.
125. There were three university departments in England and two in Scotland.
126. A psychologist and a social worker with training as a psychiatric nurse were appointed to EMAS in 1976. EMAS, J. Clin. Psychol., op. cit., note 81 above.
127. For a summary of their concerns, see Visual display terminals and workers' health, WHO Offset Publication No. 99, Geneva, WHO, 1987.
128. By 1980 psychologists had established grades linked to national salary structures in the NHS, the Education Department (School Psychological Services) and in the Armed Services.
129. J Hall, T Lavender, and S Llewelyn. 'A history of clinical psychology in Britain: some impressions and reflections', Hist. Philos. Psychol., 2003, 4 (2): 32-48.
130. The Register of chartered psychologists and the accompanying Directory of chartered psychologists (those with practising certificates) are published annually, Leicester, EPS.
131. l02 The processes of professionalization in psychology have been less discussed by historians than have aspects of professonalization in medicine. However, see S Lovie, 'Three steps to heaven: how the British Psychological Society attained its place in the sun',
132. and Mathew Thomson, 'The popular, the practical and the professional: psychological identities in Britain, 1901-1950', in Bunn, Lovie and Richards (eds), Three steps to heaven: how the British Psychological Society attained its place in the sun', op. cit., note 25 above, pp. 95-114, 115-132.
133. Shimmin and Wallis, Three steps to heaven: how the British Psychological Society attained its place in the sun', op. cit., note 25 above, pp. 93-107.
134. Beginning in 1987, standards and competence requirements, with approved training courses, for the use of psychological tests became formalized in: Psychological testing: a test user's guide, Leicester, Psychological Testing Centre of the BPS, 1999, see also http://www.psychtesting.org.uk. Alongside this, NFER-Nelson, one of the main test publishers in the UK, requires purchaser registration and, based on qualifications, issues Test User Codes which determine the level of test which can be purchased by each user.
135. The role of psychologists in the health services: report of the Sub-Committee on the Role, of Psychologists in the Health Services (Trethowan Report), London, HMSO, 1977.
136. B Stollery and M L H Flindt, 'Memory sequelae of solvent intoxication', Scand. J. Work Environ. Health, 1988, 14: 45-8.
137. Spurgeon, et al., Scand. J. Work Environ. Health, op. cit., note 65 above.
138. Spurgeon, et al., Scand. J. Work Environ. Health, op. cit., note 83 above.
139. l09 Stephens, et al., Scand. J. Work Environ. Health, op. cit., note 87 above.
140. The only academic psychological journal concerned exclusively with occupational health in the UK is entitled Work and Stress.
141. R Chen, F Dick and A Seaton, 'Health effects of solvent exposure among dockyard painters: mortality and neuropsychological symptoms', Occup. Environ. Med., 1999, 56: 383-7.
142. Triebig and Hallermann, Occup. Environ. Med., op. cit., note 8 above.
143. The differences in criteria were highlighted by J A van der Hoek, M M Verberk, G van der Laan, and G Hageman, 'Routine diagnostic procedures for chronic encephalopathy induced by solvents: survey of experts', Occup. Environ. Med., 2001, 58: 382-5.
144. See, for example, J F Gamble, 'Low-level hydrocarbon solvent exposure and neurobehavioural effects', Occup. Med. (London), 2000, 50 (2): 81-102;
145. Lees-Haley and Williams, Occup. Med. (London), op. cit., note 92 above.