National human rights institutions and economic, social, and cultural rights: Toward the institutionalization and developmentalization of human rights

Human Rights Quarterly

Volumn 28, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 755-779

  Raj Kumar, C ^a,b,c  

^a CITY UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG   (Hong Kong)

^b National Human Rights Commission   (India)

^c Legal Education and Research Society (LEARS)   (India)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CULTURAL IDENTITY; ECONOMIC POLICY; HUMAN RIGHTS; SOCIAL POLICY;

EID: 33748677694     PISSN: 02750392     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/hrq.2006.0035     Document Type: Article

References (150)

1. For a critical perspective on NHRIs, see C. Raj Kumar, National Human Rights Institutions: Good Governance Perspectives on Institutionalization of Human Rights, 19 Am. U. Int'l L. Rev. 259 (2003).
2. See Henry Steiner & Philip Alston, International Human Rights in Context 705 (2d ed. 2000) (reviewing the formation of international human rights).
3. See generally Martin A. Olz, Non-Governmental Organizations in Regional Human Rights Systems, 28 Colum. Hum. Rts. L. Rev. 307 (1997). In the same vein, the assessment of the performance of NHRIs is also being done with a view to ensuring that quality is not compromised while increasing the quantity.
4. See International Council on Human Rights Policy (ICHRP), Performance & Legitimacy: National Human Rights Institutions (2004), available at http://www.ichrp.org/paper_files/102_p_01.pdf.
5. See also ICHRP, Assessing the Effectiveness of National Human Rights Institutions (2005), available at http://www.ichrp.org/paper_files/ 125_p_01.pdf.
6. See Human Rights Watch, Protectors or Pretenders? Government Human Rights Commissions in Africa (2001) [hereinafter Protectors or Pretenders?] (finding that the number of countries with NHRIs has increased significantly between 1989 and 2000), available at http:// www.hrw.org/reports/2001/africa/.
7. See Linda C. Reif, Building Democratic Institutions: The Role of National Human Rights Institutions in Good Governance and Human Rights Protection, 13 Harv. Hum. Rts. J. 1, 2 (2000).
8. See generally Amanda Whiting, Situating Suhakam: Human Rights Debates and Malaysia's National Human Rights Commission, 39 Stan. J. Int'l L. 59, 72-74 (2003) (examining the UN initiatives and Paris Principles as a basis for discussing human rights in Malaysia).
9. See also Sonia Cardenas, National Human Rights Commissions in Asia, 4 Hum. Rts. Rev. 30, 31-32 (2002) (evaluating international human rights against state sovereignty);
10. Mario Gomez, Sri Lanka's New Human Rights Commission, 20 Hum. Rts. Q. 281, 282-83 (1998) (assessing the value of the UN proposals and the Paris Principles);
11. Sidney Jones, Regional Institutions for Protecting Human Rights in Asia, 50 Austl. J. Int'l Aff. 269, 269-70 (1996) (examining the effectiveness of international commissions on the regional level);
12. Stephen Livingstone, The Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission, 22 Fordham Int'l L.J. 1465, 1468-69 (1999) (discussing the Paris Principles and the UN guidelines as the basis for creating NHRIs in Northern Ireland);
13. Vijayashri Sripati, India's National Human Rights Commission: A Shackled Commission?, 18 B.U. Int'l L.J. 1, 4-6 (2000) (assessing the success of the UN ideals and Paris Principles in India);
14. Japanese Civil Liberties Union, National Human Rights Commission for Japan, Universal Principle: Human Rights Newsletter from Japan Civil Liberties Union 3-10 (2002), available at http://www.jclu.org/katsudou/ universal∥inciple/up10.pdf (proposing the creation of a National Human Rights Commission for Japan and evaluating its role and purpose in the country).
15. See generally Carolyn Evans, Human Rights Commissions and Religious Conflict in the Asia Pacific Region, 53 Int'l & Comp. L.Q. 713 (2004).
16. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, adopted 16 Dec. 1966, G.A. Res. 2200A (XXI), U.N. GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16, U.N. Doc.A/6316 (1966), 993 U.N.T.S. 3 (entered into force 3 Jan. 1976). Some of the rights the ICESCR guarantees are: self-determination (Article 1); equal rights for men and women (Article 3); work (Article 6); just and favorable conditions of work (Article 7); the rights of workers to organize and bargain collectively (Article 8); social security and social insurance (Article 9) and protection and assistance for the family (Article 10); adequate standard of living, including adequate food, clothing, and housing (Article 11); freedom from hunger (Article 11); the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, including the right to healthcare (Article 12); education (Article 13); and the right to culture and to benefit from scientific progress (Article 15).
17. This was outlined in Ontario Human Rights Commission (OHRC), Policy and Education Branch, Human Rights Commissions and Economic and Social Rights, available at http://www.ohrc.on.ca/english/consultations/ economic-social-rights-paper.pdf.
18. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted 16 Dec. 1966, G.A. Res. 2200 (XXI), U.N. GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 999 U.N.T.S. 171 (entered into force 23 Mar. 1976).
19. See generally Harold Hongju Koh, Why Do Nations Obey International Law?, 106 Yale L.J. 2599 (1997).
20. Harold Hongju Koh, How Is International Human Rights Law Enforced?, 74 Ind. L.J. 1397 (1999).
21. Oona A. Hathaway, Do Human Rights Treaties Make a Difference?, 111 Yale L.J. 1935, 2015-19 (2002).
22. See Audrey R. Chapman, A "Violations Approach" for Monitoring the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 18 Hum. Rts. Q. 23, 24 (1996).
23. For further reading, see Michael Posner & Candy Whittome, The Status of Human Rights NGOs, 25 Colum. Hum. Rts. L. Rev. 269, 272-76 (1994).
24. United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, The United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Fact Sheet No. 16 (Rev. 1) (1991), available at http://193.194.138.190/html/ menu6/2/fs16.htm.
25. For a constitutional perspective of the debate relating to rights for minimum entitlements, see Erwin Chemerinsky, Making the Case for a Constitutional Right to Minimum Entitlements, 44 Mercer L. Rev. 525, 541 (1993);
26. Erwin Chemerinsky, Under the Bridges of Paris: Economic Liberties Should Not Be Just for the Rich, 6 Chapman L. Rev. 31-41 (2003);
27. Mark S. Kende, The South African Constitutional Court's Embrace of Socio-Economic Rights: A Comparative Perspective, 6 Chapman L. Rev. 137 (2003).
28. See generally, C. Raj Kumar, Institutionalization of Human Rights in Asia: Developmentalizing Rights to Promote Good Governance, 12 Asia Pacific L. Rev. 143 (2004).
29. Michael J. Dennis & David P. Stewart, Justiciability of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Should There be an International Complaints Mechanism to Adjudicate the Rights to Food, Water, Housing, and Health?, 98 Am. J. Int'l L. 462 (2004).
30. For a comprehensive analysis of this relationship in the context of Canada, see OHRC, Human Rights Commissions and Economic and Social Rights, available at http://www. ohrc.on.ca/english/consultations/ economic-social-rights-paper.pdf.
31. For NHRIs that have a constitutional foundation, see, e.g., the South African Human Rights Commission, available at http://www.sahrc.org.za/ sahrc_cms/publish/cat_index_26.shtml;
32. the Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice, Ghana, available at http://www.chrajghana.org/index?articleld=0001.
33. For NHRIs created on the basis of legislation passed by the national Parliament, see, e.g., the National Human Rights Commission, India, available at http://nhrc.nic.n/;
34. the Human Rights Commission of Malaysia, available at http:// www.suhakam.org.my/en/index.asp.
35. For an example of a NHRI created on the basis of a presidential decree, see the Human Rights Commission of the Maldives, available at http:// www.hrcm.org.mv/.
36. For a detailed analysis on the powers and functions of NHRIs, see C. Raj Kumar, National Human Rights Institutions: Good Governance Perspectives on Institutionalization of Human Rights, 19 Am. U. Int'l L. Rev. 259 (2003).
37. See generally ICHRP, Assessing the Effectiveness, supra note 3.
38. See Terry Collingsworth, The Key Human Rights Challenge: Developing Enforcement Mechanisms, 15 Harv. Hum. Rts. J. 183, 183-85 (2002).
39. See generally Fionnuala Ni Aoláin, Looking Ahead: Strategic Priorities and Challenges for the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 35 Col. Hum. Rts. L. Rev. 469 (2004).
40. See Hurst Hannum, The Status of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in National and International Law, 25 Ga. J. Int'l & Comp. L. 287, 290 (1996) (arguing that the UDHR remains the primary source of global human rights standards and is the basis for most human rights instruments).
41. See Mary Ann Glendon, Knowing the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 73 Notre Dame L. Rev. 1153, 1164 n.53 (1998) (explaining how the UDHR formed the foundations of human rights law).
42. The Role of National Human Rights Institutions in the Protection of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 10, U.N. ESCOR, Comm. on Econ., Soc. & Cult. Rts., 19th Sess., U.N. Doc. E /C.12/1998/25 (1998).
43. Id.
44. Id.
45. Id.
46. Id.
47. For a comprehensive article on the incorporation of international human rights in a few selected constitutions, see Yash P. Ghai, Universalism and Relativism: Human Rights as a Framework for Negotiating Interethnic Claims, 21 Cardozo L. Rev. 1095 (2000).
48. The Round Table was a collaborative venture of the National Human Rights Commission of India and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNOHCHR). The Round Table was attended by representatives of twenty-four NHRIs from Afghanistan, Albania, Argentina, Burkina Faso, Costa Rica, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Fiji, Ghana, India, Ireland, Jordan, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Mexico, Mongolia, Morocco, Nepal, New Zealand, the Republic of Korea, Senegal, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Uganda. For more information, see The New Delhi Concluding Statement, available at http://www.nhri.net/pdf/ RT_New_Delhi_Conclusions_011205.pdf.
49. Id. at 5.
50. OHRC, Human Rights Commissions, supra note 18.
51. Id.
52. See The Limburg Principles on the Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, adopted 8 Jan. 1987, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 43rd Sess., Agenda Item 8, U.N. Doc. E/ CN.4/1987/17/Annex (1987), reprinted in The Limburg Principles on the Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 9 Hum. Rts. Q. 122 (1987).
53. See The Maastricht Guidelines on Violations of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 20 Hum. Rts. Q. 691, 693-94 (1998).
54. Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted 16 Dec. 1966, G.A. Res. 2200A (XXI), U.N. GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 999 U.N.T.S. 171 (entered into force 23 Mar. 1976), reprinted in 6 I.L.M. 383 (1967) [hereinafter Optional Protocol] (establishing a committee with authority to review alleged human rights violations).
55. See also Henry Steiner & Philip Alston, International Human Rights in Context: Law, Politics, Morals 705-78 (1996) (analyzing the functions of the UN Human Rights Committee under the ICCPR Optional Protocol).
56. Stephen P. Marks et al., Harvard Project on Implementing Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (on file with author).
57. Report of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to the Commission on Human Rights on a Draft Optional Protocol for the Consideration of Communications in Relation to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 53rd Sess., U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1997/105, Annex (1996).
58. Question of the Realization in All Countries of the Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Contained in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and Study of Special Problems Which the Developing Countries Face in Their Efforts to Achieve These Human Rights, U.N. ESCOR, Decision 1998/253 (1998), available at http://www.un.org/documents/ ecosoc/dec/1998/edec1998-253.htm.
59. Report of the Independent Expert on the Question of a Draft Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 58th Sess., U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/ 2002/57 (2002).
60. Report to the Economic and Social Council on the Fifty-Ninth Session of the Commission, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 59th Sess., at 6, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/2003/L.11/Add.3 (2003).
61. Report of the Open-Ended Working Group to Consider Options Regarding the Elaboration of an Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights on it First Session, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 60th Sess., U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/2004/44 (2004).
62. See Vijayashri Sripati, Toward Fifty Years of Constitutionalism and Fundamental Rights in India: Looking Back to See Ahead (1950-2000), 14 Am. U. Int'l L. Rev. 417, 458 (1998).
63. See generally Vijayashri Sripati & Arun K. Thiruvengadam, India: Constitutional Amendment Making the Right to Education a Fundamental Right, 2 Int'l J. Const. L. 148-58 (2004).
64. For further reading, see C. Raj Kumar, International Human Rights Perspectives on the Fundamental Right to Education: Integration of Human Rights and Human Development in the Indian Constitution, 12 Tulane J. Int'l & Comp. L. 237 (2004).
65. Mahendra P. Singh, The Statics and the Dynamics of the Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles - A Human Rights Perspective, 5 Sup. Ct. Cases J. 1, 1-14 (2003), available at http://www.ebc-india.com/ lawyer/articles/2003v5a4.htm.
66. See Social Justice is the Will of the People: An Interview with Noam Chomsky, 3 Seattle J. For Soc. Just. 471 (2005).
67. For a very interesting article on the constitutionalization of the right to education in South Africa, see Eric Berger, The Right to Education Under the South African Constitution, 103 Colum. L. Rev. 614 (2003).
68. See generally Shedrack C. Agbakwa, Reclaiming Humanity: Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights as the Cornerstone of African Human Rights, 5 Yale Hum. Rts. & Dev. L.J. 177, 203 (2002).
69. See generally Makau wa Mutua, Hope And Despair For A New South Africa: The Limits Of Rights Discourse, 10 Harv. Hum. Rts. J. 63 (1997).
70. S. Afr. Const. § 27(2) (1996), available at http://www.polity. org.za/html/govdocs/constitution/saconst02.html?rebookmark=1#27.
71. See Laurence R. Helfer, Overlegalizing Human Rights: International Relations Theory and the Commonwealth Caribbean Backlash Against Human Rights Regimes, 102 Colum L. Rev. 1832 (2002).
72. See Upendra Baxi, Voices of Suffering and the Future of Human Rights, 8 Transnat'l L. & Contemp. Probs. 125 (1998).
73. Jeanne M. Woods, Justiciable Social Rights as a Critique of the Liberal Paradigm, 38 Tex. Int'l L.J. 763, 792 (2003).
74. See generally Richard H. Fallon, Jr., "The Rule of Law" as a Concept in Constitutional Discourse, 97 Colum. L. Rev. 1 (1997).
75. See William C. Whitford, The Rule of Law, 2000 Wis. L. Rev. 723 (2000).
76. See Amartya Sen, Development as Freedom (1999).
77. Richard Klein, Cultural Relativism, Economic Development and International Human Rights in the Asian Context, 9 Touro Int'l L. Rev. 1, 6-7, 25 (2001).
78. J. Oloka-Onyango, Reinforcing Marginalized Rights in an Age of Globalization: International Mechanisms, Non-State Actors, and the Struggle for Peoples' Rights in Africa, 18 Am. U. Int'l L. Rev. 851, 852 (2003).
79. See generally Jeremy Sarkin, The Drafting of South Africa's Final Constitution from a Human Rights Perspective, 47 Am. J. Comp. L. 67 (1999).
80. See Ronald J. Daniels & Michael Trebilcock, The Political Economy of Rule of Law Reform in Developing Countries, 26 Mich. J. Int'l L. 99 (2004).
81. See, e.g., Jeremy Cooper, Poverty and Constitutional Justice: The Indian Experience, 44 Mercer L. Rev. 611, 611-12 (1993).
82. ICHRP, Assessing the Effectiveness, supra note 3.
83. See generally Julie Mertus, From Legal Transplants to Transformative Justice: Human Rights and The Promise of Transnational Civil Society 14 Am. U. Int'l L. Rev. 1335 (1999).
84. Thomas M. Franck, The Emerging Right to Democratic Governance, 86 Am. J. Int'l L. 46 (1992).
85. See Gregory H. Fox, The Right to Political Participation in International Law, 17 Yale J. Int'l L. 539 (1992).
86. See Pooja Mehta, Internally-Displaced Persons and the Sardar Sarovar Project: A Case for Rehabilitative Reform in Rural India, 20 Am. U. Int'l L. Rev. 613 (2005).
87. See Upendra Baxi, What Happens Next is Up to You: Human Rights at Risk in Dams and Development, 16 Am. U. Int'l L. Rev. 1507, 1519 (2001).
88. See C. Raj Kumar, Human Rights Approaches of Corruption Control Mechanisms - Enhancing the Hong Kong Experience of Corruption Prevention Strategies, 5 San Diego Int'l L.J. 323 (2004) (discussing a perspective on human rights approaches to developing corruption prevention strategies in Hong Kong).
89. For a discussion of the relationship between corruption and human rights at the international level, see Ndiva Kofele-Kale, The Right to a Corruption-Free Society as an Individual and Collective Human Rights: Elevating Official Corruption to a Crime under International Law, 34 Int'l L. 19 (2000).
90. See generally Balakrishnan Rajagopal, Corruption Legitimacy and Human Rights: The Dialectic of the Relationship, 14 Conn. J. Int'l L. 495 (1999).
91. See C. Raj Kumar, Corruption and Human Rights: Promoting Transparency in Governance and the Fundamental Right to Corruption-Free Service in India, 17 Colum. J. Asian L. 31 (2003) (discussing the relationship between corruption and human rights in the context of India).
92. See C. Raj Kumar, Corruption in Japan: Institutionalizing the Right to Information, Transparency and the Right to Corruption-Free Governance, 10 N.E. J. Int'l & Comp. L. 1 (2004).
93. See Steve Harnovitz, Two Centuries of Participation: NGOs and International Governance, 18 Mich. J. Int'l L. 183 (1997).
94. See generally Michael C. Davis, Constitutionalism and Political Culture: The Debate over Human Rights and Asian Values, 11 Harv. Hum. Rts. J. 109 (1998).
95. See C. Raj Kumar, Developing a Human Rights Culture in Hong Kong: Creating a Framework for Establishing an Independent Human Rights Commission, 11 Tulsa J. Comp. & Int'l L. 407 (2004).
96. See generally Saladin Al-Jurf, Good Governance and Transparency. Their Impact on Development, 9 Transnat'l L. & Contemp. Probs. 193 (1999).
97. Declaration on the Right to Development, adopted 4 Dec. 1986, G.A. Res. 41/128, U.N. GAOR, 97th Sess., U.N. Doc. A/RES/41/128 (1986).
98. Kjoerum, supra note 33.
99. Id.
100. S. Afr. Const. § 184(3), supra note 51.
101. National Human Rights Commissions and ESC Rights, Circle of Rights, Economic, Social & Cultural Rights Activism: A Training Resource, available at http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/edumat/IHRIP/circle/modules/ module23.htm.
102. Grootboom v. Oostenberg Municipality (1999) (Cape Prov. Div.), available at http://www.law-lib.utoronto.ca/Diana/fulltext/groot.pdf.
103. Dwight G. Newman, Institutional Monitoring of Social and Economic Rights: A South African Case Study and a New Research Agenda, 19 S. Afr. J. Hum. Rts. 189 (2003).
104. For an extensive discussion of the question of what constitutes terrorism, see Emanuel Gross, Legal Aspects of Tackling Terrorism: The Balance Between the Right of a Democracy to Defend Itself and the Protection of Human Rights, 6 U.C.L.A. J. Int'l L. & For. Aff. 89 (2001).
105. Philip B. Heymann, Civil Liberties and Human Rights in the Aftermath of September 11, 25 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 441 (2002).
106. See C. Raj Kumar, Human Rights Implications of National Security Laws in India: Combating Terrorism while Preserving Civil Liberties, 33 Denver J. Int'l L. & Pol'y 195 (2005).
107. See In Larger Freedom: Towards Development, Security and Human Rights for All Report of the Secretary General, U.N. GAOR, 59th Sess., Agenda Items 45 & 55, U.N. Doc. A/59/2005 (2005).
108. Moreover, narrow perceptions of security fail to recognize within the governance agenda the threats due to infectious diseases such as SARS.
109. See C. Raj Kumar & D.K. Srivastava, Introduction: Interdependence of Human Rights and Development, in Human Rights and Development: Law, Policy and Governance (C. Raj Kumar & D.K. Srivastava eds., 2006).
110. United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2000 (2000).
111. See generally Arjun Sengupta, On the Theory and Practice of the Right to Development, 24 Hum. Rts. Q. 837 (2002).
112. See Davis, supra note 75.
113. Balakrishnan Rajacopal, International Law from Below: Development, Social Movements and Third World Resistance 360 (2003).
114. Id.,
115. cited in Deena R. Hurwitz, The Politics of the People, Human Rights and What is Hidden from View, Book Review, 37 Geo. Wash. Int'l L. Rev. 293 (2005).
116. Id.
117. Neil Stammers, Social Movements and the Social Construction of Human Rights, 21 Hum. Rts. Q. 980 (1999).
118. See Kumar, Institutionalization of Human Rights in Asia, supra note 16.
119. See Kumar, National Human Rights Institutions, supra note 19.
120. See Michael C. Davis, Constitutionalism and Economic Development in Asia: Do Domestic Institutions Matter, in Human Rights and Development, supra note 90.
121. See Carolyn Evans, Human Rights Commissions and Religious Conflict in the Asia Pacific Region, 53 Int'l & Comp. L.Q. 713 (2004).
122. See generally Ernst-Ulrich Petersmann, Time for a United Nations "Global Compact" for Integrating Human Rights into the Law of Worldwide Organizations: Lessons from European Integration, 13 Eur. J. Int'l L. 621 (2002);
123. Philip Alston, Resisting the Merger and Acquisition of Human Rights by Trade Law: A Reply to Petersmann, 13 Eur. J. Int'l L. 815 (2002);
124. Ernst-Ulrich Petersmann, Taking Human Rights, Poverty and Empowerment of Individuals More Seriously: Rejoinder to Alston, 13 Eur. J. Int'l L. 845 (2002).
125. See Thomas Pogge, World Poverty and Human Rights: Cosmopolitan Responsibilities and Reforms (2002).
126. See also Arjun K. Sengupta, Poverty Eradication and Human Rights, available at http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/fxbcenter/No.20_Sengputa.pdf.
127. Jean Dreze & Amartya Sen, Hunger and Public Action 20 (1989).
128. See UN Millennium Development Goals (2005), available at http:// www.un.org/millenniumgoals/.
129. Id.
130. Id.
131. Id.
132. See Jeffrey D. Sachs, The End of Poverty: Economic Possibililities for Our Time (2005).
133. See Marc S. Galanter & Jayanth K. Krishnan, "Bread for the Poor": Access to Justice and the Rights of the Needy in India, 55 Hastings L.J. 789, 795 (2004).
134. See Philippa Webb, The United Nations Convention Against Corruption: Global Achievement or Missed Opportunity?, 8 J. Int'l Econ. L. 101 (2005).
135. Press Release, General Assembly, Secretary General Lauds Adoption by General Assembly of United Nations Convention against Corruption, SG/SM/ 8977, GA/10200, SOC/CP/271 (3 Nov. 2003).
136. See Halim Moris, The World Bank and Human Rights: Indispensable Partnership or Mismatched Alliance?, 4 ILSA J. Int'l & Comp. L. 173, 178-79 (1997).
137. See David Weissbrodt & Muria Kruger, Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises With Regard to Human Rights, 97 Am. J. Int'l L. 901, 907-09 (2003).
138. See Emeka Duruigbo, The World Bank, Multinational Oil Corporations, and the Resource Curse in Africa, 26 Univ. Penn. J. Int'l Econ. L. 1 (2005);
139. Korinna Horta, Rhetoric and Reality: Human Rights and the World Bank, 15 Harv. Hum. Rts. J. 227 (2002).
140. Joseph E. Stiglitz, Globalization and its Discontents (2002).
141. See Ved P. Nanda, Preemptive and Preventive Use of Force, Collective Security and Human Security, 33 Denv. J. Int'l L. & Pol'y 7 (2004).
142. See Priyankar Upadhyaya, Human Security, Humanitarian Intervention and Third World Concerns, 33 Denv. J. Int'l L. & Pol'y 81 (2005).
143. See generally John F Jones, Human Security and Social Development, 33 Denv. J. Int'l L. & Pol'y 105 (2005).
144. See In Larger Freedom, supra note 88.
145. Id.
146. See generally Jennifer Moore, Collective Security with a Human Face: An International Legal Framework for Coordinated Action to Alleviate Violence and Poverty, 33 Denv. J. Int'l L. & Pol'y 43 (2004).
147. See Jones, supra note 119, at 92.
148. See Paul Hoffman, Human Rights and Terrorism, 26 Hum. Rts. Q. 932 (2004);
149. see also C. Raj Kumar, Global Responses to Terrorism and National Insecurity. Ensuring Security, Development and Human Rights, 12 ILSA J. Int'l & Comp. L. (2005);
150. Kumar, Human Rights Implications of National Security Laws in India, supra note 87.