The postwar suburbanization of American physics

American Quarterly

Volumn 56, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 851-888

  Kaiser, David ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 33748630343     PISSN: 00030678     EISSN: 10806490     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/aq.2004.0059     Document Type: Review

References (225)

1. C. Wright Mills, White Collar: The American Middle Classes (New York: Oxford University Press, 1951), 156
2. Clark Kerr, The Uses of the University, 4th ed. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994 [1963]), 31-33, 71
3. Irving Howe, "This Age of Conformity," Partisan Review 20 (1954): 7-33, on 10, 17
4. Mills, White Collar, esp. 129-36, and chap. 7
5. Russell Jacoby, The Last Intellectuals: American Culture in the Age of Academe, 2d ed. (New York: Basic Books, 2000 [1987]), esp. chaps. 1, 6; quotation on 14
6. See esp. Daniel Kevles, The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America, 3d ed.(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995 [1978]), chaps. 21-23
7. Paul Forman, "Behind Quantum Electronics: National Security as Basis for Physical Research in the United States, 1940-1960," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 18 (1987): 149-229
8. Everett Mendelsohn, M. Roe Smith, and Peter Weingart, eds., Science, Technology, and the Military (Boston: Kluwer, 1988)
9. Peter Galison and Bruce Hevly, eds., Big Science: The Growth of Large-Scale Research (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992)
10. James Capshew and Karen Rader, "Big Science: Price to the Present," Osiris 7 (1992): 3- 25
11. Stuart Leslie, The Cold War and American Science (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993)
12. and Peter Galison, Image and Logic: A Material Culture of Microphysics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), chaps. 4, 5, and 9
13. Samuel Allison, "The State of Physics, or the Perils of Being Important," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 6 (January 1950): 2-4, 26-27, on 2-3
14. Compare David Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest (Greenwich: Fawcett, 1972)
15. On travel to the 1947 Shelter Island conference, see Silvan Schweber, QED and the Men Who Made It: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 172-74
16. on B-25 flights for civilian-physicist advisors, see Philip Morse, In at the Beginnings: A Physicist's Life (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1977), 247
17. On deanships, see Bernard Berelson, Graduate Education in the United States (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960), 123
18. See also Roger Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities since World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993)
19. Rebecca Lowen, Creating the Cold War University: The Transformation of Stanford (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997)
20. Noam Chomsky et al., The Cold War and the University (New York: New Press, 1997)
21. and Christopher Simpson, ed., Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences during the Cold War (New York: New Press, 1998)
22. Alice Kimball Smith, A Peril and a Hope: The Scientists' Movement in America, 1945-47 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965)
23. Martin Sherwin, A World Destroyed: Hiroshima and the Origins of the Arms Race, rev. ed. (New York: Vintage, 1987 [1975])
24. Kevles, The Physicists
25. Paul Boyer, By the Bomb's Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age (New York: Pantheon, 1985)
26. Ellen Schrecker, No Ivory Tower: McCarthyism and the Universities (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), esp. 126-60
27. Lawrence Badash, Scientists and the Development of Nuclear Weapons (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1995)
28. Jessica Wang, American Science in an Age of Anxiety: Scientists, Anticommunism, and the Cold War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999)
29. and Silvan Schweber, In the Shadow of the Bomb: Bethe, Oppenheimer, and the Moral Responsibility of the Scientist (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000)
30. See also Lowen, Cold War University, 5-6
31. and Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumers' Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York: Knopf, 2003), 8
32. Tuve, "Is Science Too Big," 49
33. See also Paul Forman, "Social Niche and Self-image of the American Physicist," in The Restructuring of Physical Sciences in Europe and the United States, 1945-1960, ed. Michelangelo de Maria, Mario Grilli, and Fabio Sebastiani (Singapore: World Scientific, 1989), 96-104
34. and Silvan Schweber, "Some Reflections on the History of Particle Physics in the 1950s," in Pions to Quarks: Particle Physics in the 1950s, ed. Laurie Brown, Max Dresden, and Lillian Hoddeson (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 668-93
35. David Kaiser, "Cold War Requisitions, Scientific Manpower, and the Production of American Physicists after World War II," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 33 (fall 2002): 131-59
36. Edith Truslow and Kasha Thayer, Manhattan District History: Nonscientific Aspects of Los Alamos Project Y, 1942 through 1946(Los Alamos: Los Alamos Historical Society, 1997 [1946])
37. Bernice Brode, Tales of Los Alamos: Life on the Mesa, 1943-1945 (Los Alamos: Los Alamos Historical Society, 1997)
38. Craig Martin, Quads, Shoeboxes, and Sunken Living Rooms: A History of Los Alamos Housing (Los Alamos: Los Alamos Historical Society, 2000)
39. and Peter Hales, Atomic Spaces: Living on the Manhattan Project (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997)
40. Daniel Lang, From Hiroshima to the Moon: Chronicles of Life in the Atomic Age (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1959), esp. 23,348
41. Rabi as quoted in Robert Crease, Making Physics: A Biography of Brookhaven National Laboratory, 1946-72 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 58
42. see also chap. 2. On the new industrial laboratories, see Scott Knowles and Stuart Leslie, "'Industrial Versailles': Eero Saarinen's Corporate Campuses for GM, IBM, and AT&T," Isis 92 (2001): 1-33
43. see also Ann Markusen, "Cold War Workers, Cold War Communities," in Rethinking Cold War Culture, ed. Peter Kuznick and James Gilbert (Washington, D.C: Smithsonian, 2001), 35-60
44. and Ann Markusen et al., The Rise of the Gunbelt: The Military Remapping of Industrial America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991)
45. Paul Fussell makes a similar argument in his The Great War and Modern Memory (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975): soldiers' interpretations and reminiscences of their World War I experiences followed specific narrative and generic conventions, drawing (often unself-consciously and without direct attribution) on broadly circulating cultural artifacts such as songs, poems, and novels. My thanks to an anonymous reviewer for bringing the link with Fussell's work to my attention
46. David Riesman with Reuel Denney and Nathan Glazer, The Lonely Crowd: A Study of the Changing American Character (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950), esp. chap. 2 ("From Morality to Morale")
47. Mills, White Collar, and The Sociological Imagination (New York: Oxford University Press, 1959), chap. 5
48. Sloan Wilson, The Man in the Grey Flannel Suit (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1955)
49. William Whyte, The Organization Man (New York: Doubleday, 1956)
50. John Keats, The Crack in the Picture Window (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1956)
51. John Kenneth Galbraith, The Affluent Society (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1958)
52. Vance Packard, Status Seekers (New York: D. McKay, 1959)
53. See also Lewis Mumford, The City in History (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1961), 486-506
54. Kenneth Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985)
55. Daniel Horowitz, Vance Packard and American Social Criticism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994)
56. J. John Palen, The Suburbs(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995)
57. Rosalyn Baxandall and Elizabeth Ewen, Picture Windows: How the Suburbs Happened(New York: Basic Books, 2000)
58. and Cohen, A Consumer's Republic
59. Riesman, Lonely Crowd, chaps. 6-7, 15-17
60. Whyte, Organization Man, chap. 6, 21-22
61. Wilson, Grey Flannel Suit
62. Keats, Picture Window
63. Psychiatrists and social psychologists similarly argued that suburban living directly caused higher incidences of mental illness: John Seeley, R. Alexander Sim, and E. W Loosley, Crestwood Heights (New York: Basic Books, 1956)
64. R. E. Gordon, K. K. Gordon, and M. Günther, The Split-Level Trap (New York: Dell, 1962)
65. Riesman, Lonely Crowd, chaps. 3, 7
66. Riesman, Lonely Crowd, chaps. 15-17
67. Galbraith, Affluent Society
68. Packard, Status Seekers, passim
69. See also an amusing "application" of Riesman's analysis by Gregory Stone, "Halloween and the Mass Child," American Quarterly 11 (Autumn 1959): 372-79
70. Keats, Picture Window, esp. chap. 3
71. Also common was Philip Wylie's complaint of "momism": overbearing and overprotective suburban mothers were raising effete sons. Philip Wylie, Generation of Vipers, 20th ed. (New York: Pocket Books, 1959 [1942]), 184-206
72. Such charges were the inverse of the later charge that women in the suburbs were victims of "containment": bored, underappreciated, and stuck in dissatisfying life roles. See Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (New York: Norton, 1963)
73. Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York: Basic Books, 1988)
74. and Palen, The Suburbs, 163-66. This characterization has been challenged recently in Joanne Meyerowitz, ed., Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1945-1960 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994)
75. and Daniel Horowitz, Betty Friedan and the Making of the Feminine Mystique: The American Left, the Cold War, and Modern Feminism (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998)
76. For recent, concise summaries of the "suburban myth" and its detractors, see Palen, The Suburbs, 68-100
77. Alan Brinkley, "The Illusion of Unity in Cold War Culture," in Rethinking Cold War Culture, ed. Kuznick and Gilbert, 61-73
78. and William Sharpe and Leonard Wallock, "Bold New City or Built Up 'Burb? Redefining Contemporary Suburbia," American Quarterly 46 (March 1994): 1-30
79. William Whyte Jr., "The Transients," Fortune 47 (May 1953): 112-17, 221-26
80. See also Joseph Zikmund III and Deborah Dennis, Suburbia: A Guide to Information Sources (Detroit: Gale Research Co., 1979)
81. and Herbert Gans, The Levittowners: Ways of Life and Politics in a New Suburban Community, 2d ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982 [1967]), xxxix-xli
82. See esp. Bennett Berger, Working-Class Suburb: A Study of Auto Workers in Suburbia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), chap. 1
83. Gans, Levittowners, xxvii-xxviii
84. and Scott Donaldson, The Suburban Myth (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), chap. 1
85. Cohen, A Consumers' Republic, 195-97
86. Raymond Birge, History of the Physics Department, University of California (unpublished; copies in the Bancroft and Physics Department Libraries, University of California, Berkeley), 5 vols., esp. vol. 5
87. See also M. Lois Marckworth, Dissertations in Physics: An Indexed Bibliography of All Doctoral Theses Accepted by American Universities, 1861-1959 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961), x-xi
88. Birge to Sproul, May 10, 1950
89. and Dale Corson, Annual Report for 1956-57, IV.1, in CDP-AR, see also L. G. Parratt, Annual Report for 1960-61, 8-10, in CDP-AR
90. For example, the article by Robert Oetjen and John Cooper, "The New Physics Building at the Ohio State University," AJP 21 (1953): 221-27, included citations to six similar reports published within that journal between 1942 and 1950 (221n1)
91. "The Scientists," Fortune 38 (October 1948): 106-12, 166-76
92. James Davis, Great Aspirations: The Graduate School Plans of America's College Seniors (Chicago: Aldine, 1964), 164
93. See also Richard Meier, "The Origins of the Scientific Species," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 7 (June 1951): 169-73, on 169-70
94. Anne Roe, The Making of a Scientist (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1952), 67-69
95. R. H. Knapp and H. B. Goodrich, Origins of American Scientists (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1952)
96. Donald Super and Paul Bachrach, Scientific Careers and Vocational Development Theory (New York: Columbia University Press, 1957), 3, 35-37
97. and Spencer Klaw, The New Brahmins: Scientific Life in America (New York: Morrow, 1968), 16-17
98. Henry Barton, R. Bruce Lindsay, and Leonard Olsen, "Survey of Graduate Students in Physics," PT 15 (July 1962): 42-56, on 50
99. On the restriction of AEC facilities to U.S. citizens, see Birge to Walter Thirring, January 8, 1952, in BDP, Folder 5:117
100. and Robin Rider, "Alarm and Opportunity: Emigration of Mathematicians and Physicists to Britain and the United States, 1933-1945," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 15 (1984): 107-76
101. Harvard University Archives, Pusey Library, Cambridge, Massachusetts (hereafter HDP-"Opinions")
102. Shenstone's Annual Report, 1955-56, 2
103. Annual Report, 1956-57, 2-3, in PDP-AR
104. Lloyd Smith's Annual Report, 1947-48, 6
105. Annual Report, 1948-49, 5
106. Annual Report, 1950-51, 6, in CDP-AR
107. See, e.g., Edgar Friedenberg and Julius Roth, Self Perception in the University: A Study of Successful and Unsuccessful Graduate Students (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954), chap. 3
108. Lowen, Cold War University, 3-4, 226-27
109. and Kerr, Uses of the University, 31
110. Lowen highlights Dana Farnsworth, Mental Health in College and University (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1957), as indicative of the late-1950s trend
111. Raymond Birge to Henry Crew, May 4, 1949, in RTB
112. Mills, "The Bureaucratic Ethos," in The Sociological Imagination, 100-18
113. Whyte, Organization Man, chaps. 4-6, 21-22
114. Henry Barton, "AIP 1952 annual report," PT 6 (May 1953): 4-9, on 4
115. F. Wheeler Loomis, "Can Physics Serve Two Masters?" Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 6 (April 1950): 115-20, on 119
116. Marsh White, "American Physicists in the Current Quarter Century," PT 9 (January 1956): 32-36, on 35
117. Alvin Weinberg, "Impact of Large-Scale Science," Science 134 (1961): 161-64, on 161
118. See also Weinberg, Reflections on Big Science (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1967)
119. Arthur Roberts, "Take Away Your Billion Dollars," PT 1 (November 1948): 17-21
120. Both Lee DuBridge and Edward Condon quoted some of Roberts's lyrics in their talks at APS meetings, published as DuBridge, "The Effects of World War II on the Science of Physics," AJP 17 (1949): 273-81, on 279
121. and Condon, "The Development of American Physics," AJP 17 (1949): 404-8, on 404
122. Gordon Hull, "Fifty Years of Physics: A Study in Contrasts," Science 104 (September 13, 1946): 238-44, on 243-44
123. Percy Bridgman, "Science and Freedom-Reflections of a Physicist (1947)," as quoted in Raymond Birge, "Physics and Physicists of the Past Fifty Years," PT 9 (May 1956): 20-28, on 24-25
124. See also Maila Walter, Science and Cultural Crisis: An Intellectual Biography of Percy Williams Bridgman (1882-1961) (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990), 270-72
125. See also Norman Hilberry, unpublished 1958 Argonne memorandum, as quoted in Robert Seidel, "A Home for Big Science: The Atomic Energy Commission's Laboratory System," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 16 (1986): 135-75, on 164-65
126. Lew Kowarski, "Team Work and Individual Research," CERN Courier 2 (May 1962): 7
127. and Kowarski, "New Forms of Organization in Physical Research after 1945," in History of Twentieth Century Physics, ed. C. Weiner (New York: Academic Press, 1977), 370-401
128. Berelson, Graduate Education, 178
129. see also Warren Hagstrom, "Traditional and Modern Forms of Scientific Teamwork," Administrative Science Quarterly 9 (December 1964): 241-63, on 247
130. Louise Merz, The Graduate School as a Socializing Agency: A Pilot Study of Sociological Aspects of Graduate Training in the Physical Sciences (Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell University, 1961), 126, 144
131. See also Hagstrom, "Scientific Teamwork," 246
132. Lawrence Kubie, "Some Unsolved Problems of the Scientific Career, II," American Scientist 42 (January 1954): 104-12, on 109
133. Meier, "Scientific Species," 173
134. and H. B. G. Casimir, "Anticipations: A Continental View of Physics and Its Future," PT 9 (April 1956): 13-16, on 16
135. Memo from Birge to the department faculty, "Instructions to Graduate Student Advisers," September 19, 1951, in BDP, Folder 3:4
136. B. J. Moyer, comments in agenda for physics department meeting dated December 7, 1962, in BDP, Folder 1:31
137. A. Carl Helmholz, minutes from the physics department faculty meeting of May 7, 1958
138. David Kaiser, Making Theory: Producing Physics and Physicists in Postwar America (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 2000), 124-30
139. Morse, Beginnings, 116-17, 287
140. W. C. Kelly, "Survey of Education in Physics in Universities of the United States," unpublished report dated December 1, 1962, in AIP-EMD, Box 9
141. J. H. Reynolds memorandum, May 11, 1954
142. Robert Karplus memorandum, April 22, 1957
143. Kaiser, "Cold War Requisitions," 142-43, 151
144. "Extending Longevity in Scientists," as reported in "Scientific Manpower," PT 8 (June 1955), 23-24
145. see also Kaiser, "Cold War Requisitions," 147
146. See also Richard Hamer, "The Romantic and Idealistic Appeal of Physics," Science 61 (1925): 109-10
147. as quoted in Spencer Weart, "The Physics Business in America, 1919-1940: A Statistical Reconnaissance," in The Sciences in the American Context: New Perspectives, ed. Nathan Reingold (Washington, D.C: Smithsonian, 1979), 295-358, on 303
148. "Men of the Year," Time, January 2, 1961, 40-46, on 43
149. John Slater, "The Graduate Student: Why Has He Changed?" PT 22 (March 1969): 35-37
150. Morse, Beginnings, 167-69
151. See also Lang, Hiroshima, 215-46
152. and Roe, Making of a Scientist, 49
153. HDP-"Opinions," 66-71; emphasis in original
154. Laure Sharp and Helen Wood, "Earnings of Physicists, 1951," PT 5 (November 1952): 4-7
155. Rosenhaupt, Graduate Students, 57-59
156. L. R. Harmon, "Physics Ph.D.'s: Whence, Wither, When?" PT 15 (October 1962): 21-28, on 26-27
157. see also Barton, Lindsay, and Olsen, "Survey of Graduate Students in Physics," 43
158. On physicists' ages, see John Cooper, "American Physicists and Their Graduate Degrees," AJP 10 (1952): 484-47
159. White, "American Physicists," 35
160. J. N. Gadel and G. A. Peters, "Employment Preferences of Physicists," PT 10 (October 1957): 14-16, on 15
161. Henry Barton, "Education and Employment of Physicists,"
162. PT 13 (January 1960): 20-22, on 21
163. Sylvia Barisch, "Some Results of the 1962 Physics Roster," PT 17 (April 1964): 48-53, on 49
164. See also Merz, Graduate School, 171-73
165. See figure 12.17 in Physics Survey Committee, Physics in Perspective (Washington, D.C: National Academy of Sciences, 1972), vol. 1, 852
166. "How Many Patents per Ph.D.?" PTS (December 1955)
167. inside front cover; "Brain Brawn," PT 9 (February 1956)
168. "Physicist Makes New Tracks," PT 10 (January 1957): 29
169. see also "Enjoy Wonderful New England Living as a Raytheon Physicist," PT 9 (January 1956): 80
170. Employer's Services of New England ("bonus in better living"), NYT, June 26, 1960, F21
171. Avco, NYT, August 26, 1956, F9
172. Radio Corporation of America, NYT, April 13, 1958, F11
173. Perkin-Elmer, NYT, January 24, 1960, F16
174. Schlumberger Well Surveying Corp., NYT, October 9, 160, F19
175. Tung-Sol Electronic, NYT, October 16, 160, F16
176. NASA, NYT, October 8, 1961, M20
177. See also David Riesman, "The Suburban Sadness," in The Suburban Community, ed. William Dobriner (New York: Putnam, 1958), 375-408, on 381
178. On this point, see esp. T J. Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York: Basic Books, 1994)
179. Wilson, Grey Flannel Suit; Keats, Picture Window, Whyte, Organization Man, part 7
180. Riesman, "The Suburban Sadness." Compare May, Homeward Bound
181. Merle Tuve, "Technology and National Research Policy," PT 7 (January 1954): 6-9, on 7
182. See also Nathan Nichols, "Stipend: $1000," PT 1 (July 1948): 16-17, 28
183. and Davis, Stipends and Spouses
184. Birge, "Department meeting, August 24, 1938," 6, in BDP, Folder 2:4
185. Birge, memos on "Fellowships 1952-53,"and "Applicants for Teaching Assistantships, 1955-56," in BDP, Folder2:3
186. Birge's successor, Carl Helmholz, kept similar marriage statistics: "Fellowships, 1956-1957" and "Fellowships, 1957-58," in BDP, Folders 1:17-18
187. Hayward Keniston, Graduate Study and Research in the Arts and Sciences at the University of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1959), 23-24, 45
188. Francis Low, "Autobiography, ca. 1965," unpublished typescript, on 7, in NBL
189. See Sharon Traweek, Beamtimes and Lifetimes: The World of High Energy Physicists (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988), 83-84
190. and Evelyn Fox Keller, Secrets of Life, Secrets of Death: Essays on Language, Gender, and Science (London: Routledge, 1992), 1-12
191. see Mary Thérèse, "Scientific Womanpower-Our Country's Need and What Women's Colleges Are Doing to Supply Physicists," AJP 11 (October 1953): 569-70
192. Walter Michels, "Women in Physics," PT 1 (December 1948): 16-19
193. and Margaret Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Before Affirmative Action, 1940-1972 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), chap. 3
194. On the number of women receiving advanced degrees in physics, see the data in Douglas Adkins, The Great American Degree Machine (Berkeley: Carnegie Commission on Higher Education 1975), 278-81
195. J. H. Reynolds, memo of May 11, 1954, in BDP, Folder 4:25
196. See Keller, "Anomaly"
197. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America
198. Margaret Murray, Women Becoming Mathematicians: Creating a Professional Identity in Post-World War II America (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2000)
199. Abraham Flexner, Universities: American, English, German (New York: Oxford University Press, 1930), 3-4
200. Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge, 43-44
201. Keller, Secrets of Life
202. Nicholas Rasmussen, "The Midcentury Biophysics Bubble: Hiroshima and the Biological Revolution in America, Revisited," History of Science 35 (1997): 245-93
203. Ellen Herman, The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in the Age of Experts (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), chaps. 5-6
204. Paul Edwards, The Closed Wo rid: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996)
205. Chomsky et al., Cold War and the Universities
206. Simpson, ed., Universities and Empire
207. and Mark Solovey, "Project Camelot and the 1960s Epistemological Revolution: Rethinking the Politics-Patronage-Social Science Nexus," Social Studies of Science 31 (April 2001): 171-206
208. Marcello Cini, "The History and Ideology of Dispersion Relations: The Pattern of Internal and External Factors in a Paradigm Shift," Fundamenta Scientiae 1 (1980): 157-72
209. Silvan Schweber, "The Empiricist Temper Regnant: Theoretical Physics in the United States, 1920-1950," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 17 (1986): 55-98
210. Forman, "Behind Quantum Electronics"
211. Andrew Pickering, "From Field Theory to Phenomenology: The History of Dispersion Relations," in Brown et al., eds., Pions to Quarks, 579-99
212. Nancy Cartwright, "Philosophical Problems of Quantum Theory: The Response of American Physicists," in The Probabilistic Revolution, ed. Lorenz Krüger et al. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1987), vol. 2, 417-35
213. Alexi Assmus, "The Americanization of Molecular Physics," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 13 (1993): 1-34
214. Russell Olwell, "Physical Isolation and Marginalization in Physics: David Bohm's Cold War Exile," Isis 90 (1999): 738-56
215. Shawn Mullet, Political Science: The Red Scare as the Hidden Variable in the Bohmian Interpretation of Quantum Theory (B.A. thesis, University of Texas, Austin, 1999)
216. and Olival Freire, "A Story without an Ending: The Quantum Physics Controversy, 1950-1970,"
217. Science and Education 12 (2003): 573-86
218. André Guinier, "The Spirit of Research in the United States," PT 3 (May 1950): 22-29
219. and Leslie, The Cold War and American Science
220. See esp. Rudolph, Scientists in the Classroom
221. see also Harmon, "Physics Ph.D.'s," 22
222. see also Saul Dushman, "Postwar Training of Physicists for Industry," AJP 12 (August 1944): 219-24
223. and J. T. Littleton, "Educational Training for Physicists," AJP 15 Quly-August 1947): 339-40
224. On the neglect of general relativity and cosmology during this period, see Jean Eisenstaedt, "The Low Water Mark of General Relativity, 1925-55," in Einstein and the History of General Relativity, ed. Don Howard and John Stachel (Boston: Birkhäuser, 1989), 277-92
225. and David Kaiser, "A Psi Is Just a Psi? Pedagogy, Practice, and the Reconstitution of General Relativity, 1942-1975," Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics 29 (1998): 320-38